Editing Device Forts (section)

== Early history and design ==

=== Device programme ===

==== Background ====
{{Location map+|England south|width=400|alt=Map of Southern England showing the locations of the Device Forts|float=right|caption=<span style="font-size:100%;">Map of Southern England and Wales showing the locations of the Device Forts: [[File:Blue pog.svg|15px]] Henrician castles [[File:Steel pog.svg|10px]] Henrician blockhouses and bulwarks<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|pp=8–9}}</ref></span>
|places=
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.805412|long=1.010532 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Brightlingsea Blockhouse}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.68834|long=-1.95826 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Brownsea Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.82|long=-1.3075 |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=15 |link=Calshot Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.93305|long=0.73248 |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=15 |link=Camber Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.21854|long=1.4039 |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=15 |link=Deal Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.35980|long=-4.16719 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Devil's Point Artillery Tower}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.68213|long=-5.12424 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=East and West Blockhouses}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.76657|long=-1.2765 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=East Cowes Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.4650|long=0.432 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=East Tilbury Blockhouse}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.44463|long=0.37277 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Gravesend Blockhouse}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.232089|long=1.402035 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Great Turf Bulwark}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.212342|long=1.4005788 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Great White Bulwark of Clay}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.94822|long=1.28707 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Harwich blockhouses}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.45243|long=0.44695 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Higham Blockhouse}}
<!--{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=53.74339|long=-0.326679 |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=15 |link=Hull Castle}}-->
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.70644|long=-1.55117 |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=15 |link=Hurst Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.93867|long=1.32083|mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Langar Point}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.95992|long=1.31458 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Langar Rode}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.14407|long=-5.04210 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Little Dennis Blockhouse}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.225806|long=1.4015720 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Little Turf Bulwark}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.79674|long=1.00343 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Mersea Fort}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.44348|long=0.38008 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Milton Blockhouse}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.87732|long=-1.3598 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Netley Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.1460|long=-5.04659 |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=15 |link=Pendennis Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.56823|long=-2.44678 |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=15 |link=Portland Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.85145|long=-1.32091 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=St Andrew's Castle, Hamble}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.32822|long=-4.64444 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=St Catherine's Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.70604|long=-1.09834 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=St Helens Bulwark}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.15544|long=-5.04659 |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=15 |link=St Mawes Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.80101|long=1.01971 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=St Osyth Blockhouse}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.65669|long=-1.14691 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Sandown Castle, Isle of Wight}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.70669|long=-1.52145 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Sharpenrode Bulwark}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.59535|long=-2.46099|mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Sandsfoot Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.07353|long=1.14882 |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=15 |link=Sandgate Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.23843|long=1.40222 |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=15 |link=Sandown Castle, Kent}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.77805|long=-1.08888 |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=15 |link=Southsea Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.206059|long=1.4001156 |mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=Walmer Bulwark}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.20056|long=1.40203|mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=15 |link=Walmer Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.76653|long=-1.30111|mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=West Cowes Castle}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=51.45238|long=0.37357|mark=Steel pog.svg |marksize=10 |link=West Tilbury Blockhouse}}
{{Location map~ |England south|label= |label_size=86 |position=right |lat=50.70663|long=-1.50016|mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=15 |link=Yarmouth Castle}}
}}
The Device Forts emerged as a result of changes in English military architecture and foreign policy in the early 16th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|pp=9–11}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|pp=34–36}}</ref> During the late medieval period, the English use of castles as military fortifications had [[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland#Decline of English castles|declined in importance]].{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} The introduction of [[gunpowder]] in warfare had initially favoured the defender, but soon traditional stone walls could easily be destroyed by early artillery.<ref>{{harvnb|Colvin|1968|p=225}}; {{harvnb|King|1991|pp=168–9}}</ref> The few new castles that were built during this time still incorporated the older features of [[gatehouse]]s and [[crenellations|crenellated walls]], but intended them more as martial symbols than as practical military defences.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|2002|pp=178–180}}; more needed.</ref> Many older castles were simply abandoned or left to fall in disrepair.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|1987|pp=103–111}}; {{harvnb|Pounds|1994|pp=256–257}}</ref>

Although fortifications could still be valuable in times of war, they had played only a limited role during the [[Wars of the Roses]] and, when Henry VII invaded and seized the throne in 1485, he had not needed to besiege any castles or towns during the campaign.<ref>{{harvnb|Colvin|1968|p=225}}; {{harvnb|Pounds|1994|p=249}}</ref> Henry rapidly consolidated his rule at home and had few reasons to fear an external invasion from the continent; he invested little in coastal defences over the course of his reign.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=11, 21, 333}}; {{harvnb|Walton|2010|p=69}}</ref> Modest fortifications existed along the coasts, based around simple blockhouses and towers, primarily in the south-west and along the [[Sussex]] coast, with a few more impressive works in the north of England, but they were very limited in scale.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|pp=176–177}}</ref>

His son, [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] inherited the throne in 1509 and took a more interventionist approach in European affairs, fighting [[Anglo-French War (1512–14)|one war with France]] between 1512 and 1514, and then [[Treaty of Windsor (1522)|another]] between 1522 and 1525, this time allying himself with [[Kingdom of Spain|Spain]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=5}}</ref> While France and the Empire were in conflict with one another, raids along the English coast might still be common, but a full-scale invasion seemed unlikely.<ref name="thompson111">{{harvnb|Thompson|1987|p=111}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}</ref> Indeed, traditionally [[the Crown]] had left coastal defences to local lords and communities, only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications.<ref name="thompson111" /> Initially, therefore, Henry took little interest in his coastal defences; he declared reviews of the fortifications in both 1513 and 1533, but not much investment took place as a result.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}</ref>

In 1533 Henry broke with [[Pope Clement VII]] in order to annul the long-standing marriage to his wife, [[Catherine of Aragon]], and remarry.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}</ref> Catherine was the aunt of King [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V of Spain]], who took the annulment as a personal insult.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=5}}</ref> As a consequence, France and the Empire declared an alliance against Henry in 1538, and the Pope encouraged the two countries to attack England.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|pp=63–64}}</ref> An invasion of England now appeared certain; that summer Henry made a personal inspection of some of his coastal defences, which had recently been mapped and surveyed: he appeared determined to make substantial, urgent improvements.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=6}}</ref>

==== Initial phase, 1539–1543 ====
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Deal Castle Aerial View.jpg
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| image2 = Deal Castle 1539 draft.jpg
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| footer = [[Deal Castle]] in 2011, and in a draft 1539 plan probably shown to [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|2000|p=26}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/henryviii/militmap/hencastle/|title=Design for Henrician castle on the Kent coast|publisher=British Library|mode=cs2|access-date=29 June 2016}}</ref>
}}
Henry VIII gave instructions through [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] in 1539 that new defences were to be built along the coasts of England, beginning a major programme of work that would continue until 1547.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=6}}; {{harvnb|King|1991|pp=177–178}}</ref> The order was known as a "device", which meant a documented plan, instruction or schema, leading to the fortifications later becoming known as the "Device Forts".<ref name="Harrington 2007 11">{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=11}} {{harvnb|Walton|2010|p=70}}</ref> The initial instructions for the "defence of the realm in time of invasion" concerned building forts along the southern coastline of England, as well as making improvements to the defences of the towns of [[Calais]] and [[Guisnes]] in France, then controlled by Henry's forces.<ref name="Harrington 2007 11" /> Commissioners were also to be sent out across south-west and south-east England to inspect the current defences and to propose sites for new ones.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=12}}</ref>

The initial result was the construction of 30 new fortifications of various sizes during 1539.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=20}}</ref> The stone castles of [[Deal Castle|Deal]], [[Sandown Castle, Kent|Sandown]] and [[Walmer Castle|Walmer]] were constructed to protect [[The Downs (ship anchorage)|the Downs]] in east Kent, an anchorage which gave access to [[Deal, Kent|Deal Beach]] and on which an invasion force of enemy soldiers could easily be landed.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=16}}</ref> These defences, known as the castles of the Downs, were supported by a line of four earthwork forts, known as the [[Great Turf Bulwark]], the [[Little Turf Bulwark]], the [[Great White Bulwark of Clay]] and the [[Walmer Bulwark]], and a {{convert|2.5|mi|adj=on}} long defensive ditch and bank.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=16}}</ref> The route inland through a gap in the Kentish cliffs was guarded by [[Sandgate Castle]].<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|pp=54–55}}; {{harvnb|Rutton|1893|p=229}}</ref> In many cases temporary bulwarks for [[Artillery battery|artillery batteries]] were built in during the initial stages of the work, ahead of the main stonework being completed.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|p=178}}</ref>

The [[Thames]] estuary leading out of London, through which 80 percent of England's exports passed, was protected with a mutually reinforcing network of blockhouses at [[Gravesend Blockhouse|Gravesend]], [[Milton Blockhouse|Milton]], and [[Higham Blockhouse|Higham]] on the south side of the river, and [[West Tilbury Blockhouse|West Tilbury]] and [[East Tilbury Blockhouse|East Tilbury]] on the opposite bank.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=20}}; {{harvnb|Smith|1980|p=342}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=42}}</ref> [[Camber Castle]] was built to protect the anchorage outside the ports of [[Rye, East Sussex|Rye]] and [[Winchelsea]], defences were built in the port of [[Harwich]] and three earth bulwarks were built around [[Dover]].<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=21}}; {{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=1}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=41}}; {{harvnb|Colvin|Ransome|Summerson|1982|p=470}}</ref> Work was also begun on [[Calshot Castle]] in [[Fawley, Hampshire|Fawley]] and the blockhouses of [[East Cowes Castle (16th century)|East]] and [[West Cowes Castle|West Cowes]] on the [[Isle of Wight]] to protect [[the Solent]], which led into the trading port of [[Southampton]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jenkins|2007|p=153}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|pp=8, 28}}; {{harvnb|Morley|1976|pp=8–9}}</ref> The [[Portland Roads]] anchorage in [[Dorset]] was protected with new castles at [[Portland Castle|Portland]] and [[Sandsfoot Castle|Sandsfoot]], and work began on two blockhouses to protect the [[Milford Haven Waterway]] in Pembrokeshire.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=41}}; {{harvnb|Crane|2012|p=2}}</ref>

In 1540 additional work was ordered to defend [[Cornwall]].<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=11}}</ref> [[Carrick Roads]] was an important anchorage at the mouth of the [[River Fal]] and the original plans involved constructing five new fortifications to protect it, although only two castles, [[Pendennis Castle|Pendennis]] and [[St Mawes Castle|St Mawes]], were actually built, on opposite sides of the estuary.<ref>{{harvnb|Jenkins|2007|p=153}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=24}}</ref> Work began on further fortifications to protect the Solent in 1541, with the construction of [[Hurst Castle]], overlooking the [[Needles Passage]], and [[Netley Castle]] just outside Southampton itself.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|pp=8–9}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=25}}; {{harvnb|Pettifer|2002|p=86}}</ref> Following a royal visit to the north of England, the coastal fortifications around the town of Hull were upgraded in 1542 with a [[Hull Castle|castle]] and two large blockhouses.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=29}}; {{harvnb|King|1991|p=177}}; {{harvnb|Colvin|Ransome|Summerson|1982|p=472}}</ref> Further work was carried out in Essex in 1543, with a total of seven fortifications constructed, three in Harwich itself, three protecting the estuary leading to the town, and two protecting the estuary linking into Colchester.<ref>{{harvnb|Colvin|Ransome|Summerson|1982|pp=470–471}}</ref> [[St Andrew's Castle, Hamble|St Andrew's Castle]] was begun to further protect the Solent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=229676|title=St Andrew's Castle|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|access-date = 2 August 2015}}: {{harvnb|Kenyon|1979|p=75}}</ref>

The work was undertaken rapidly, and 24 sites were completed and garrisoned by the end of 1540, with almost all of the rest finished by the end of 1543.<ref>{{harvnb|Lowry|2006|p=9}}</ref> By the time they were completed, however, the alliance between Charles and Francis had collapsed and the threat of imminent invasion was over.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=29}}; {{harvnb|Lowry|2006|p=10}}</ref>

==== Second phase, 1544–1547 ====
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Southsea castle from the east.JPG
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| image2 = Cowdray Engaving-detail of sinking.jpg
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| footer = [[Southsea Castle]] in 2011, and depicted in the [[Cowdray engraving]] of the [[Battle of the Solent]] in 1545
}}
Henry moved back onto the offensive in Europe in 1543, allying himself with Spain against France once again.<ref name="Hale 1983 79–80">{{harvnb|Hale|1983|pp=79–80}}</ref> Despite Henry's initial successes around [[Boulogne]] in northern France, King Charles and Francis made peace in 1544, leaving England exposed to an invasion by France, backed by her allies in Scotland.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=80}}</ref> In response Henry issued another device in 1544 to improve the country's defences, particularly along the south coast.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|pp=29–30}}</ref> Work began on [[Southsea Castle]] in 1544 on Portsea Island to further protect the Solent, and on [[Sandown Castle, Isle of Wight|Sandown Castle]] the following year on the neighbouring Isle of Wight.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=30}}</ref> [[Brownsea Castle]] in Dorset was begun in 1545, and [[Sharpenrode Bulwark]] was built opposite Hurst Castle from 1545 onwards.<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=51}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=459492|title=Fort Victoria|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|access-date = 26 May 2015}}</ref>

The French invasion emerged in 1545, when Admiral [[Claude d'Annebault]] crossed [[the Channel]] and arrived off the Solent with 200 ships on 19 July.<ref>{{harvnb|Potter|2011|p=376}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=86}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=45}}</ref> Henry's fleet made a brief sortie, before retreating safely behind the protective fortifications.<ref>{{harvnb|Potter|2011|p=376}}</ref> Annebault landed a force near [[Newhaven, East Sussex|Newhaven]], during which Camber Castle may have fired on the French fleet, and on 23 July they landed four detachments on the Isle of Wight, including a party that took the site of Sandown Castle, which was still under construction.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=46}}</ref> The French expedition moved further on along the coast on 25 July, bringing an end to the immediate invasion threat.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=86}}</ref> Meanwhile, on 22 July the French had carried out a raid at [[Seaford, East Sussex|Seaford]], and Camber Castle may have seen action against the French fleet.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=33, 35}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|pp=46–47}}</ref> A peace treaty was agreed in June 1546, bringing an end to the war.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|pp=46–47}}</ref> By the time that Henry died the following year, in total the huge sum of £376,000 had been spent on the Device projects.<ref name="Hale 1983 70">{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=70}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money16thC}}

=== Architects and engineers ===
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Yarmouth Castle, Isle of Wight - geograph.org.uk - 1720431.jpg
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| image2 = Yarmouth castle plan 1559.jpg
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| footer = [[Yarmouth Castle]] in 2009, and its 1559 plan showing its Italianate, arrow-head bastion
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Some of the Device Forts were designed and built by teams of English engineers.<ref name="Saunders 1989 45">{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=45}}</ref> The master mason John Rogers was brought back from his work in France and worked on the Hull defences, while Sir [[Richard Lee (engineer)|Richard Lee]], another of the King's engineers from his French campaigns, may have been involved in the construction of Sandown and Southsea; the pair were paid the substantial sums of £30 and £36 a year respectively.<ref>{{harvnb|Walton|2010|pp=68, 71}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|pp=15–15}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money16thC}} Sir Richard Morris, the [[Master-General of the Ordnance|Master of Ordnance]], and [[James Nedeham]], the [[Surveyor of the King's Works]], led on the defences along the Thames.<ref name="Saunders 1989 45" /> The efforts of the [[Hampton Court Palace]] architectural team, under the leadership of the [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] canon, [[Richard Benese]], contributed to the high-quality construction and detailing seen in many of Henry's Device projects.<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=11}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2088|title=Benese, Richard (d. 1547)|publisher=Oxford University Press|author=Jonathan Hughes|date=2008|edition=online|mode=cs2|access-date=30 July 2016}}</ref>

Henry himself took a close interest in the design of the fortifications, sometimes overruling his technical advisers on particular details.<ref>{{harvnb|Walton|2010|p=70}}</ref> Southsea Castle, for example, was described by the courtier Sir [[Edmund Knyvet]] as being "of his Majesty's own device", which typically indicated that the King had taken a personal role in its design.<ref>{{harvnb|Corney|1968|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Colvin|Ransome|Summerson|1982|pp=561–562}}</ref> The historian Andrew Saunders suspects that Henry was "probably the leading and unifying influence behind the fortifications".<ref name="Saunders 1989 45" />

England also had a tradition of drawing on expert foreign engineers for military engineering; Italians were particularly sought after, as their home country was felt to be generally more technically advanced, particularly in the field of fortifications.<ref>{{harvnb|Walton|2010|p=68}}</ref> One of these foreign engineers, [[Stefan von Haschenperg]] from [[Moravia]], worked on Camber, Pendennis, Sandgate and St Mawes, apparently attempting to reproduce Italian designs, although his lack of personal knowledge of such fortifications impacted poorly on the end results.<ref>{{harvnb|Skempton|2002|p=303}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|pp=44–45}}; {{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=31}}</ref> Technical treatises from mainland Europe also influenced the designers of the Device Forts, including [[Albrecht Dürer]]'s {{lang|de|Befestigung der Stett, Schlosz und Felcken}} which described contemporary methods of fortification in Germany, published in 1527 and translated into Latin in 1535, and [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]'s {{lang|it|Libro dell'art della guerra}}, published in 1521, which also described new Italian forms of military defences.<ref>{{harvnb|Walton|2010|pp=67–68}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=45}}</ref>

=== Architecture ===
[[File:Gravesend defences 1588 Thamesis Descriptio.png|thumb|300px|18th-century engraving  of a 1588 map showing the mutually reinforcing defences along the River Thames, including [[Milton Blockhouse|Milton]] and [[Gravesend Blockhouse|Gravesend blockhouses]] (top), and [[East Tilbury Blockhouse|East Tilbury]] and [[West Tilbury Blockhouse|West Tilbury blockhouses]] (bottom){{efn|In this map of the Thames, south is depicted to the top of the map, contrary to usual cartographic practice; west is therefore on the right hand side of the map, and east to the left.}}]]
The Device Forts represented a major, radical programme of work; the historian [[Marcus Merriman]] describes it as "one of the largest construction programmes in Britain since the Romans", Brian St John O'Neil as the only "scheme of comprehensive coastal defence ever attempted in England before modern times", while Cathcart King likened it to the [[Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd|Edwardian castle building programme in North Wales]].<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|p=175}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=11}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/16303?docPos=3|title=Lee, Sir Richard (1501/2–1575)|publisher=Oxford University Press|author=Marcus Merriman|date=2004|mode=cs2|access-date=30 July 2016}}</ref>

Although some of the fortifications are titled as castles, historians typically distinguish between the character of the Device Forts and those of the earlier medieval castles.<ref name="creighton51">{{harvnb|Creighton|2002|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Brown|1989|pp=70–71}}</ref> Medieval castles were private dwellings as well as defensive sites, and usually played a role in managing local estates; Henry's forts were organs of the state, placed in key military locations, typically divorced from the surrounding patterns of land ownership or settlements.<ref name="creighton51" /> Unlike earlier medieval castles, they were spartan, utilitarian constructions.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=15}}</ref> Some historians such as King have disagreed with this interpretation, highlighting the similarities between the two periods, with the historian [[Christopher Duffy]] terming the Device Forts the "reinforced-castle fortification".<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|pp=175–176}}</ref>

The forts were positioned to defend harbours and anchorages, and designed both to focus artillery fire on enemy ships, and to protect the gunnery teams from attack by those vessels.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|p=180}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=37}}</ref> Some, including the major castles, including the castles of the Downs in Kent, were intended to be self-contained and able to defend themselves against attack from the land, while the smaller blockhouses were primarily focused on the maritime threat.<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=40}}</ref> Although there were extensive variations between the individual designs, they had common features and were often built in a consistent style.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|pp=37–28}}</ref>

The larger sites, such as Deal or Camber, were typically squat, with low [[parapet]]s and massively thick walls to protect against incoming fire.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|1987|p=112}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|pp=44–45}}</ref> They usually had a central [[keep]], echoing earlier medieval designs, with curved, concentric bastions spreading out from the centre.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|1987|p=112}}</ref> The main guns were positioned over multiple tiers to enable them to engage targets at different ranges. There were far more gunports than there were guns held by the individual fortification.<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|pp=37–39, 43–44}}; {{harvnb|Lowry|2006|p=13}}; {{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=22}}</ref> The bastion walls were pierced with splayed gun [[embrasure]]s, giving the artillery space to traverse and enabling easy [[Fire-control system|fire control]], with overlapping angles of fire.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|p=180}}; {{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=23}}</ref> The interiors had sufficient space for gunnery operations, with specially designed vents to remove the [[black powder]] smoke generated by the guns.<ref name="Lowry 2006 10">{{harvnb|Lowry|2006|p=10}}</ref> [[Moat]]s often surrounded the sites, to protect against any attack from land, and they were further protected by what the historian [[Beric Morley]] describes as the "defensive paraphernalia developed in the Middle Ages": portcullises, murder holes and reinforced doors.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|pp=22–24}}</ref> The smaller blockhouses took various forms, including D-shapes, octagonal and square designs.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|p=179}}</ref> The Thames blockhouses were typically protected on either side by additional earthworks and guns.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1980|pp=349, 357–358}}; {{harvnb|Smith|1974|p=143}}</ref>

These new fortifications were the most advanced in England at the time, an improvement over earlier medieval designs, and were effective in terms of concentrating firepower on enemy ships.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1979|pp=61–62}}</ref> They contained numerous flaws, however, and were primitive in comparison to their counterparts in mainland Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|1987|p=113}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=52}}</ref> The multiple tiers of guns gave the forts a relatively high profile, exposing them to enemy attack, and the curved surfaces of the hollow bastions were vulnerable to artillery.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=52}}; {{harvnb|Lowry|2006|p=13}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|pp=43–44}}</ref> The concentric bastion design prevented overlapping fields of fire in the event of an attack from the land, and the tiers of guns meant that, as an enemy approached, the number of guns the fort could bring to bear diminished.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=52}}</ref>

Some of these issues were addressed during the second Device programme from 1544 onwards. Italian ideas began to be brought in, although the impact of Henry's foreign engineers seems to have been limited, and the designs themselves lagged behind those used in his French territories.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|pp=89–90}}</ref> The emerging continental approach used angled, "arrow-head" bastions, linked in a line called a {{lang|fr|[[trace italienne]]}}, to provide supporting fire against any attacker.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|1987|p=113}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|pp=77, 90}}</ref> Sandown Castle on the Isle of Wight, constructed in 1545, was a hybrid of traditional English and continental ideas, with angular bastions combined with a circular bastion overlooking the sea.<ref name="Saunders 1989 51">{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=51}}</ref> Southsea Castle and Sharpenode Fort had similar, angular bastions.<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|pp=77, 90}}</ref> Yarmouth Castle, finished by 1547, was the first fortification in England to adopt the new arrow-headed bastion design, which had further advantages over a simple angular bastion.<ref>{{harvnb|Rigold|2012|p=4}}</ref> Not all the forts in the second wave of work embraced the Italian approach however, and some, such as Brownsea Castle, retained the existing, updated architectural style.<ref name="Saunders 1989 51" />

=== Logistics ===
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Calshot castle evening.JPG
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| image2 = Calshot Castle, Hampshire 1539 almost true.jpg
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| footer = [[Calshot Castle]] in 2012 (left) and in a 1539 plan (right); the castle reused materials from the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries|dissolution]] of nearby [[Beaulieu Abbey]]
}}
The costs of building the fortifications varied with their size.<ref name="morley26">{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=26}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=46}}</ref> A small blockhouse cost around £500 to build, whereas a medium-sized castle, such as Sandgate, Pendennis or Portland, would come to approximately £5,000.<ref name="morley26" /> The defensive line of Deal, Sandown and Walmer castles cost a total £27,092, while the work at Hull Castle and its two blockhouses came to £21,056.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=8}}; {{harvnb|Skempton|2002|p=582}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money16thC}} Various officials were appointed to run each of the projects, including a [[paymaster]], a [[comptroller]], an overseer and commissioners from the local gentry.<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=46}}</ref> A few fortifications were built by local individuals and families; St Catherine's Castle, for example, was reportedly paid for by the town and local gentry, and the Edgcumbe family built Devil's Point Artillery Tower to protect Plymouth Harbour.<ref>{{harvnb|Leland|1907|pp=202–203}}; {{harvnb|Chandler|1996|p=43}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=437592|title=Devils Point Artillery Tower|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|access-date = 26 May 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1129960|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|access-date = 26 May 2015}}</ref>

Much of the expenditure was on the construction teams, called "crews", who built the forts.<ref name="Hale 1983 70" /> The numbers of workers varied during the course of the project, driven in part by seasonal variation, but the teams were substantial: Sandgate Castle, for example, saw an average of 640 men on the site daily during June 1540, and the work at Hull required a team of 420.<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=28}}; {{harvnb|Skempton|2002|p=582}}</ref> A skilled worker was paid between 7 and 8 pence a day, a labourer between 5 and 6 pence, with trades including stonemasons, carpenters, carters, lime burners, sawyers, plumbers, scavelmen, dikers and bricklayers.<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=28}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=18}}</ref>{{efn|In the 16th century, stone masons, bricklayers and carpenters worked with stone, bricks and wood respectively; carters moved material; lime burners produced an important raw material for mortar; sawyers cut wood; plumbers worked on the lead used in roofing; scavelmen and dikers on waterways, ditches and earth banks.}} Finding enough workers proved difficult, and in some cases men had to be pressed into service unwillingly.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=28}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=70}}</ref> [[Labour dispute]]s broke out, with strikes over low pay at Deal in 1539 and at Guisnes in 1541; both were quickly suppressed by royal officials.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=8}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=70}}</ref>

Large amounts of raw materials were also needed for the work, including stone, timber and lead and many other supplies. Camber, for example, probably required over 500,000 bricks, Sandgate needed 44,000 tiles, while constructing a small blockhouse along the Thames was estimated by contemporaries to require {{convert|200|t}} of [[chalk]] just to enable the manufacture of the [[lime mortar]].<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=26}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Smith|1974|p=144}}</ref> Some materials could be sourced locally, but coal was shipped from the north of England and prefabricated items were brought in from London.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=29}}</ref>

Most of the money for the first phase of Device works came from Henry's dissolution of the monasteries a few years before, and the revenues that flowed in from the [[Court of Augmentations]] and [[Court of First Fruits and Tenths|First Fruits and Tenths]] as a result.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=71}}</ref> In addition, the dissolution had released ample supplies of building materials as the monastic buildings were pulled down, and much of this was recycled.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=8}}</ref> Netley Castle, for example, was based on an old abbey and reused many of its stones, East Tilbury Blockhouse reused parts of St Margaret's Chantry, Calshot Castle took the lead from nearby [[Beaulieu Abbey]], East and West Cowes castles stone from Beaulieu and [[Quarr Abbey|Quarr]], and Sandwich had the stone from the local [[Carmelite]] friary.<ref>{{harvnb|Pettifer|2002|p=86}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1013943|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|access-date=17 May 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=461607|title=East Cowes Castle|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|access-date = 26 May 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1267310|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|access-date=26 June 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=71}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=46}}</ref> Milton Blockhouse was constructed on land that had recently been confiscated from [[Milton Chantry]].<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1980|p=344}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=413595|title=Milton Chantry|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|access-date = 13 May 2015}}</ref> By the second phase of the programme, however, most of the money from the dissolution had been spent, and Henry instead had to borrow funds; government officials noted that at least £100,000 was needed for the work.<ref name="Hale 1983 79–80" />{{efn|name=Money16thC}}

=== Garrisons ===
[[File:St Mawes Castle 3.jpg|thumb|left|Reconstruction of life amongst the 16th-century garrison at [[St Mawes Castle]]]]
The garrisons of the Device Forts comprised relatively small teams of men who typically lived and worked in the fortifications.<ref name="Harrington 2007 37–38">{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|pp=37–38}}</ref> The garrisons would maintain and care for the buildings and their artillery during the long periods of peacetime and, in a crisis, would be supplemented by additional soldiers and the local militia.<ref name="Harrington 2007 37–38" /> The size of the garrisons varied according to the fortification; Camber Castle had a garrison of 29, Walmer Castle 18, while the West Tilbury Blockhouse only held 9 men.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=1, 35}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1960|p=154}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1977|p=9}}; {{harvnb|Pattison|2004|p=21}}; {{harvnb|Elvin|1890|p=162}}</ref> The ordinary soldiers would have lived in relatively basic conditions, typically on the ground floor, with the captains of the fortifications occupying more elaborate quarters, often in the upper levels of the keeps.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|pp=38–39}}; {{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=26}}</ref> The soldiers ate meat and fish, some of which might have been hunted or caught by the garrison.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=38}}</ref>

The garrisons were well organised, and a strict code of discipline was issued in 1539; the historian Peter Harrington suggests that life in the forts would have usually been "tedious" and "isolated".<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=37}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=47}}</ref> Soldiers were expected to provide  handguns at their own expense, and could be fined if they failed to produce them.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=26}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=39}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=47}}</ref> There were only around 200 gunners across England during the 1540s; they were important military specialists, and the historians Audrey Howes and Martin Foreman observe that "an air of mystery and danger" surrounded them.<ref>{{harvnb|Howes|Foreman|1999|p=16}}</ref>

The rates of pay across the defences were recorded in 1540, showing that the typical pay of the garrisons was 1 or 2 shillings a day for a captain; his deputy, 8 pence; porters, 8 pence; with soldiers and gunners receiving 6 pence each.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=26}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=47}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money16thC}} In total, 2,220 men were recorded as receiving pay that year, at a cost to the Crown of £2,208.<ref name="Saunders 1989 47">{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=47}}</ref>  Although most garrisons were paid for by the Crown, in some cases the local community also had a role; at Brownsea, the local town was responsible for providing a garrison of 6 men, and at Sandsfoot the village took up the responsibility for supporting the castle garrison, in exchange for an exemption from paying taxes and carrying out militia service.<ref>{{harvnb|Symonds|1914|pp=32–33}}; {{harvnb|Norrey|1988|p=794}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Sydenham|1839|pp=387, 390}}</ref>

=== Armament ===
[[File:Pendennis castle gun crew.jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of a 16th-century cannon and gun crew at [[Pendennis Castle]]]]

The artillery guns in the Device forts were the property of the Crown and were centrally managed by the authorities in the [[Tower of London]].<ref name="Saunders 1989 47" /> The Tower moved them between the various fortifications as they felt necessary, often resulting in complaints from the local captains.<ref name="Saunders 1989 47" /> Various surviving records record the armaments held by individual forts on particular dates, and between 1547 and 1548 a complete [[Inventory of Henry VIII of England|inventory was made of the Crown's possessions]], detailing the weapons held by all of the forts.<ref name="Harrington 2007 41">{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=41}}</ref> The number of guns varied considerably from site to site; in the late 1540s, heavily armed forts such as Hurst and Calshot held 26 and 36 guns respectively; Portland, however, had only 11 pieces.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=20}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1979|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Coad|2013|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Lawson|2002|p=8}}</ref> Some forts had more guns than the level of their regular, peacetime garrison; for example, despite only having an establishment of 13 men, Milton Blockhouse had 30 artillery pieces.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1980|p=344}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Sydenham|1839|pp=387, 390}}</ref>

A variety of artillery guns were deployed, including heavier weapons, such as [[cannon]]s, [[culverin]]s and [[demi-cannon]]s, and smaller pieces such as [[Saker (cannon)|sakers]], [[Minion (cannon)|minions]] and [[Falconet (cannon)|falcons]].<ref name="saunders47">{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=47}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1979|p=76}}</ref> Some older guns, for example [[Sling (cannon)|slings]] and [[List of medieval and early modern gunpowder artillery|bases]], were also deployed, but were less effective than newer weapons such as the culverin.<ref name="saunders47" /> With sites equipped with several tiers of weapons, the heaviest guns would typically be placed higher up in the fortification, with the smaller weapons closer to the ground.<ref name="Lowry 2006 10" /> It is uncertain how far the guns of the period would have reached; analysis carried out in the 16th and 17th century on the ranges of artillery suggested that the largest weapons, such as a culverin, could hit a target up to between {{convert|1,600|and(-)|2,743|m|ft}} away.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=44–46}}</ref>

The forts were typically equipped with a mixture of [[brass]] and [[iron]] artillery guns.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=46}}</ref> Guns made of brass could fire more quickly—up to eight times an hour—and were safer to use than their iron equivalents, but were expensive and required imported [[copper]] (tin could be sourced from [[Mining in Cornwall and Devon|Cornwall and Devon]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Hammer|2003|p=79}}</ref> In the 1530s Henry had established a new English gun-making industry in the [[Weald of Kent]] and London, staffed by specialists from mainland Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Lowry|2006|p=10}}; {{harvnb|Morley|1976|pp=21–23}}</ref> This could make cast-iron weapons, but probably initially lacked the capacity to supply all of the artillery required for the Device forts, particularly since Henry also required more guns for his new navy.<ref>{{harvnb|Lowry|2006|p=10}}; {{harvnb|Morley|1976|pp=21–23}}; {{harvnb|Hammer|2003|p=79}}</ref> A technical breakthrough in 1543, however, led to the introduction of [[Casting (metalworking)|vertical casting]] and a massive increase in Henry's ability to manufacture iron cannons.<ref>{{harvnb|Hammer|2003|p=79}}</ref> Few guns from this period have survived, but during excavations in 1997 an iron [[portpiece]] was discovered on the site of the South Blockhouse in Kingston on Hull.<ref name="hullcc1">{{cite web|url=http://www.hullcc.gov.uk/museumcollections/collections/storydetail.php?irn=153|title=Henry's Gun|publisher=Hull City Council|mode=cs2|access-date=4 June 2016}}</ref> The weapon, now known as "Henry's Gun", is one of only four such guns in the world to have survived and is displayed at the Hull and East Riding Museum.<ref name="hullcc1" />

In addition to artillery, the Device Forts were equipped with infantry weapons.<ref name="Harrington 2007 41" /> Handguns, typically an early form of matchlock [[arquebus]]<!--"hagbush" is the same word, more directly borrowed from Dutch rather than via French, similar to "hackbut"-->, would have been used for close defence; these were {{convert|6|ft|adj=on}} long and supported on tripods.<ref name="Harrington 2007 41" /> Many forts also held supplies of bows, arrows and polearms, such as [[Bill (weapon)|bills]], [[pike (weapon)|pikes]] and [[halberd]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=42}}</ref> [[Longbow]]s were still in military use among English armies in the 1540s, although they later declined quickly in popularity, and these, along with the polearms, would have been used by the local militia when they were called out in a crisis.<ref>{{harvnb|Lowry|2006|p=10}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=41}}; {{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=345}}</ref>