Editing Dictionary (section)

==History==
[[File:Catalano latinum 1696 Gazophylacium Dictionary published in Barcelona.jpg|left|thumb|Catalan-Latin dictionary from the year 1696 with more than 1000 pages. Gazophylacium Dictionary. ]]

The oldest known dictionaries were [[cuneiform]] tablets with bilingual [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]–[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] wordlists, discovered in [[Ebla]] (modern [[Syria]]) and dated to roughly 2300 BCE, the time of the [[Akkadian Empire]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=DCCLT – Digital Corpus of Cuneiform Lexical Texts |url=http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/dcclt/intro/lexical_intro.html |access-date=1 March 2022 |website=oracc.museum.upenn.edu |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401062333/http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/dcclt/intro/lexical_intro.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="imlqdg">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Dictionary – MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573731/Dictionary.html#p3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029091932/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573731/Dictionary.html |archive-date=29 October 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Howard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v7lgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT347 |title=The Bloomsbury Handbook of Lexicography |date=24 February 2022 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-18172-4 |language=en}}</ref> The early 2nd millennium BCE ''[[Urra=hubullu]]'' glossary is the canonical [[Babylonia]]n version of such bilingual Sumerian wordlists. A [[Chinese dictionary]], the {{Circa|3rd century BCE}} ''[[Erya]]'', is the earliest surviving monolingual dictionary; some sources cite the ''[[Shizhoupian]]'' (probably compiled sometime between 700 BCE to 200 BCE, possibly earlier) as a "dictionary", although modern scholarship considers it a calligraphic compendium of [[Chinese character]]s from [[Zhou dynasty]] bronzes.{{citation needed |reason=The Wikipedia article about the Shizhoupian does not contain any mention of Zhou dynasty bronzes or calligraphy. |date=September 2022}} [[Philitas of Cos]] (fl. 4th century BCE) wrote a pioneering vocabulary ''Disorderly Words'' (Ἄτακτοι γλῶσσαι, ''{{transliteration|el|ISO|Átaktoi glôssai}}'') which explained the meanings of rare [[Homer]]ic and other literary words, words from local dialects, and technical terms.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Peter Bing |title= The unruly tongue: Philitas of Cos as scholar and poet |journal= Classical Philology |volume=98 |issue=4 |year=2003 |pages=330–348 |doi=10.1086/422370|s2cid= 162304317 }}</ref> [[Apollonius the Sophist]] ([[Floruit|fl.]] 1st century CE) wrote the oldest surviving Homeric lexicon.<ref name = "imlqdg"/> The first [[Sanskrit]] dictionary, the [[Amarakosha|Amarakośa]], was written by [[Amarasimha]] {{Circa|4th century CE}}. Written in verse, it listed around 10,000 words. According to the {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Nihon Shoki]]}}, the first [[Japanese dictionaries#Early Japanese lexicography|Japanese dictionary]] was the long-lost 682 CE ''Niina'' glossary of Chinese characters. [[Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi|Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi's]] 8th century ''[[Kitab al-'Ayn]]'' is considered the first dictionary of [[Arabic]].<ref>Sellheim, R., "al-K̲h̲alīl b. Aḥmad", in: ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]], Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 4 June 2023</ref> The oldest existing Japanese dictionary, the {{Circa|835 CE}} ''[[Tenrei Banshō Meigi]]'', was also a glossary of written Chinese. In ''[[Frahang-i Pahlavig]]'', [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] [[Heterogram (linguistics)|heterograms]] are listed together with their translation in the [[Middle Persian]] language and phonetic transcription in the [[Pazend]] alphabet. A 9th-century CE Irish dictionary, [[Sanas Cormaic]], contained etymologies and explanations of over 1,400 Irish words. In the 12th century, The [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanid]]-[[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] scholar [[Mahmud al-Kashgari|Mahmud Kashgari]] finished his work "[[Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk|Divan-u Lügat'it Türk]]", a dictionary about the Turkic dialects, but especially [[Middle Turkic languages|Karakhanid Turkic]]. His work contains about 7500 to 8000 words and it was written to teach non Turkic Muslims, especially the Abbasid Arabs, the Turkic language.<ref>Besim Atalay, Divanü Lügat-it Türk Dizini, TTK Basımevi, Ankara, 1986</ref> [[Al-Zamakhshari]] wrote a small Arabic dictionary called "Muḳaddimetü'l-edeb" for the Turkic-Khwarazm ruler [[Atsiz]].<ref>Zeki Velidi Togan, Zimahşeri'nin Doğu Türkçesi İle Mukaddimetül Edeb'i</ref> In the 14th century, the [[Codex Cumanicus]] was finished and it served as a dictionary about the [[Cumans|Cuman]]-Turkic language. While in [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Egypt]], Ebû Hayyân el-Endelüsî finished his work "Kitâbü'l-İdrâk li-lisâni'l-Etrâk", a dictionary about the [[Kipchaks|Kipchak]] and [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turcoman]] languages spoken in Egypt and the [[Levant]].<ref>Ahmet Caferoğlu, Kitab Al Idrak Li Lisan Al Atrak, 1931</ref> A dictionary called "Bahşayiş Lügati", which is written in old Anatolian Turkish, served also as a dictionary between Oghuz Turkish, Arabic and Persian. But it is not clear who wrote the dictionary or in which century exactly it was published. It was written in [[old Anatolian Turkish]] from the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] period and not the late medieval [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] period.<ref>Bahşāyiş Bin Çalıça, Bahşayiş Lügati: Hazırlayan: Fikret TURAN, Ankara 2017,</ref> In India around 1320, [[Amir Khusro]] compiled the Khaliq-e-bari, which mainly dealt with [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] words.<ref>{{cite news|last=Rashid|first=Omar|title=Chasing Khusro|url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/books/article3672990.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=5 August 2012|archive-date=25 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925124056/https://www.thehindu.com/books/chasing-khusro/article3672990.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:Nouveau Dictionnaire Larousse page.JPG|thumb|The French-language ''[[Petit Larousse]]'' is an example of an illustrated dictionary.]]

[[Arabic]] dictionaries were compiled between the 8th and 14th centuries, organizing words in rhyme order (by the last syllable), by alphabetical order of the [[root (linguistics)|radicals]], or according to the alphabetical order of the first letter (the system used in modern European language dictionaries). The modern system was mainly used in specialist dictionaries, such as those of terms from the [[Qur'an]] and [[hadith]], while most general use dictionaries, such as the ''Lisan al-`Arab'' (13th century, still the best-known large-scale dictionary of Arabic) and ''al-Qamus al-Muhit'' (14th century) listed words in the alphabetical order of the radicals. The ''Qamus al-Muhit'' is the first handy dictionary in Arabic, which includes only words and their definitions, eliminating the supporting examples used in such dictionaries as the ''Lisan'' and the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.<ref>"Ḳāmūs", J. Eckmann, ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', 2nd ed., Brill</ref>

[[File:Vocabolario degli accademici della crusca, prima edizione per giovanni alberti, venezia 1612, 01.jpg|thumb|300px|left|1612 ''[[Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca]]'']]
In medieval Europe, [[glossary|glossaries]] with equivalents for Latin words in [[vernacular]] or simpler Latin were in use (e.g. the [[Leiden Glossary]]). The ''[[Catholicon (1286)|Catholicon]]'' (1287) by [[John of Genoa|Johannes Balbus]], a large grammatical work with an alphabetical lexicon, was widely adopted. It served as the basis for several bilingual dictionaries and was one of the earliest books (in 1460) to be printed. In 1502 [[Ambrogio Calepino]]'s ''Dictionarium'' was published, originally a monolingual Latin dictionary, which over the course of the 16th century was enlarged to become a multilingual glossary. In 1532 [[Robert Estienne]] published the ''Thesaurus linguae latinae'' and in 1572 his son [[Henri Estienne]] published the ''[[Thesaurus linguae graecae]]'', which served up to the 19th century as the basis of Greek lexicography. The first monolingual Spanish dictionary written was [[Sebastián Covarrubias]]'s ''[[Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española]]'', published in 1611 in Madrid, Spain.<ref>''Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española'', edición integral e ilustrada de Ignacio Arellano y Rafael Zafra, Madrid, Iberoamericana-Vervuert, 2006, pg. XLIX.</ref> In 1612 the first edition of the ''[[Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca]]'', for [[italian language|Italian]], was published. It served as the model for similar works in French and English. In 1690 in [[Rotterdam]] was published, posthumously, the ''Dictionnaire Universel'' by [[Antoine Furetière]] for [[french language|French]]. In 1694 appeared the first edition of the {{Lang|fr|[[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]]}} (still published, with the ninth edition not complete {{As of|2021|lc=y}}). Between 1712 and 1721 was published the ''Vocabulario portughez e latino'' written by Raphael Bluteau. The [[Royal Spanish Academy]] published the first edition of the {{Lang|es|[[Diccionario de la lengua española]]}} (still published, with a new edition about every decade) in 1780; their ''Diccionario de Autoridades'', which included quotes taken from literary works, was published in 1726. The ''Totius Latinitatis lexicon'' by [[Egidio Forcellini]] was firstly published in 1777; it has formed the basis of all similar works that have since been published.

The first edition of ''[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]'' by [[Henry George Liddell]] and [[Robert Scott (philologist)|Robert Scott]] appeared in 1843; this work remained the basic dictionary of Greek until the end of the 20th century. And in 1858 was published the first volume of the [[Deutsches Wörterbuch]] by the [[Brothers Grimm]]; the work was completed in 1961. Between 1861 and 1874 was published the ''Dizionario della lingua italiana'' by [[Niccolò Tommaseo]]. Between 1862 and 1874 was published the six volumes of ''A magyar nyelv szótára'' (Dictionary of Hungarian Language) by Gergely Czuczor and János Fogarasi. [[Émile Littré]] published the {{Lang|fr|[[Dictionnaire de la langue française (Littré)|Dictionnaire de la langue française]]}} between 1863 and 1872. In the same year 1863 appeared the first volume of the ''[[Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal]]'' which was completed in 1998. Also in 1863 [[Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl]] published the ''[[Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language]]''. The [[Duden]] dictionary dates back to 1880, and is currently the [[prescriptive]] source for the spelling of German. The decision to start work on the ''[[Svenska Akademiens ordbok]]'' was taken in 1787.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/saob/|title=OSA – Om svar anhålles|website=g3.spraakdata.gu.se|access-date=13 October 2017|archive-date=2 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302142155/http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/saob/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===English dictionaries in Britain===

The earliest dictionaries in the English language were glossaries of French, Spanish or Latin words along with their definitions in English. The word "dictionary" was invented by an Englishman called [[John of Garland]] in 1220{{snd}} he had written a book ''[[Dictionarius (Johannes de Garlandia)|Dictionarius]]'' to help with Latin "diction".<ref>Mark Forsyth. The etymologicon. // Icon Books Ltd. London N79DP, 2011. p. 128</ref> An [[Early English dictionaries|early non-alphabetical list of 8000 English words]] was the ''Elementarie'', created by [[Richard Mulcaster]] in 1582.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/dic/mul/elementarie.html|title=1582 – Mulcaster's Elementarie|website=www.bl.uk|access-date=13 October 2017|archive-date=11 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011021428/http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/dic/mul/elementarie.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/lexicography/b_history.html A Brief History of English Lexicography] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309181613/http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/lexicography/b_history.html |date=9 March 2008 }}, Peter Erdmann and See-Young Cho, [[Technical University of Berlin|Technische Universität Berlin]], 1999.</ref>

The first purely English alphabetical dictionary was ''[[Table Alphabeticall|A Table Alphabeticall]]'', written by English schoolteacher [[Robert Cawdrey]] in 1604.<ref name="thought" /><ref name="britannica" /> The only surviving copy is found at the [[Bodleian Library]] in [[Oxford]]. This dictionary, and the many imitators which followed it, was seen as unreliable and nowhere near definitive. [[Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield]] was still lamenting in 1754, 150 years after Cawdrey's publication, that it is "a sort of disgrace to our nation, that hitherto we have had no… standard of our language; our dictionaries at present being more properly what our neighbors the Dutch and the Germans call theirs, word-books, than dictionaries in the superior sense of that title."<ref>[http://JackLynch.net/Papers/firstdict.html Jack Lynch, "How Johnson's Dictionary Became the First Dictionary" (delivered 25 August 2005 at the Johnson and the English Language conference, Birmingham)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829231146/http://jacklynch.net/Papers/firstdict.html |date=29 August 2019 }} Retrieved 12 July 2008,</ref>

In 1616, John Bullokar described the history of the dictionary with his "English Expositor". ''Glossographia'' by [[Thomas Blount (lexicographer)|Thomas Blount]], published in 1656, contains more than 10,000 words along with their etymologies or histories. [[Edward Phillips]] wrote another dictionary in 1658, entitled "[[The New World of English Words]]: Or a General Dictionary" which boldly [[Plagiarism|plagiarized]] Blount's work, and the two criticized each other. This created more interest in the dictionaries. [[John Wilkins]]' 1668 [[An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language|essay on philosophical language]] contains a list of 11,500 words with careful distinctions, compiled by [[William Lloyd (bishop of Worcester)|William Lloyd]].<ref>{{cite book|author=John P. Considine|title=Dictionaries in Early Modern Europe: Lexicography and the Making of Heritage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cqBkQFiTbX4C&pg=PA298|access-date=16 May 2016|date=27 March 2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-88674-1|page=298}}</ref> [[Elisha Coles]] published his "English Dictionary" in 1676.

It was not until [[Samuel Johnson]]'s ''[[A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' (1755) that a more reliable English dictionary was produced.<ref name="britannica" /> Many people today mistakenly believe that Johnson wrote the first English dictionary: a testimony to this legacy.<ref name="thought" /><ref name = "wblqfm">{{cite web|url=http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Papers/firstdict.html|title=Lynch, "How Johnson's Dictionary Became the First Dictionary"|website=andromeda.rutgers.edu|access-date=13 October 2017|archive-date=6 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606025835/http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Papers/firstdict.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> By this stage, dictionaries had evolved to contain textual references for most words, and were arranged alphabetically, rather than by topic (a previously popular form of arrangement, which meant all animals would be grouped together, etc.). Johnson's masterwork could be judged as the first to bring all these elements together, creating the first "modern" dictionary.<ref name = "wblqfm"/>

Johnson's dictionary remained the English-language standard for over 150 years, until the [[Oxford University Press]] began writing and releasing the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' in short [[wikt:fascicle|fascicles]] from 1884 onwards.<ref name="britannica" /> A complete ten-volume first edition<ref name="c479">{{cite web | title=The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=20 July 1998 | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Oxford-English-Dictionary | access-date=14 September 2024}}</ref> was not released until 1928.<ref name="s764">{{cite news | last=Dirda | first=Michael | title=The most influential crowdsourcing project happened long before Wikipedia | newspaper=Washington Post | date=12 October 2023 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/books/2023/10/12/dictionary-people-book-review/ | access-date=14 September 2024}}</ref> One of the main contributors to this modern dictionary was an ex-army surgeon, [[William Chester Minor]], a convicted murderer who was confined to an asylum for the criminally insane.<ref>[[Simon Winchester]], ''[[The Surgeon of Crowthorne]]''.</ref>

The OED remains the most comprehensive and trusted English language dictionary to this day, with revisions and updates added by a dedicated team every three months.

===American English dictionaries===
In 1806, American [[Noah Webster]] published his first dictionary, ''[[s:A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language|A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language]]''.<ref name="britannica" /> In 1807 Webster began compiling an expanded and fully comprehensive dictionary, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language;'' it took twenty-seven years to complete. To evaluate the etymology of words, Webster learned twenty-six languages, including [[Old English]] (Anglo-Saxon), German, Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, Hebrew, Arabic, and [[Sanskrit]].

Webster completed his dictionary during his year abroad in 1825 in Paris, France, and at the [[University of Cambridge]]. His book contained seventy thousand words, of which twelve thousand had never appeared in a published dictionary before. As a [[spelling reform]]er, Webster believed that English spelling rules were unnecessarily complex, so his dictionary introduced spellings that became [[American English]], replacing "colour" with "color", substituting "wagon" for "waggon", and printing "center" instead of "centre". He also added American words, like "skunk" and "squash", which did not appear in British dictionaries. At the age of seventy, Webster published his dictionary in 1828; it sold 2500 copies. In 1840, the second edition was published in two volumes. Webster's dictionary was acquired by G & C Merriam Co. in 1843, after his death, and has since been published in many revised editions. [[Merriam-Webster]] was acquired by [[Encyclopedia Britannica]] in 1964.

Controversy over the lack of usage advice in the 1961 ''[[Webster's Third New International Dictionary]]'' spurred publication of the 1969 ''[[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]]'', the first dictionary to use [[corpus linguistics]].