Editing Digital electronics (section)

==History==
The [[binary number system]] was refined by [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] (published in 1705) and he also established that by using the binary system, the principles of arithmetic and logic could be joined. Digital logic as we know it was the invention of [[George Boole]] in the mid-19th century. In an 1886 letter, [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] described how logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits.<ref name="P2M">Peirce, C. S., "Letter, Peirce to [[Allan Marquand|A. Marquand]]", dated 1886, ''[[Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography#W|Writings of Charles S. Peirce]]'', v. 5, 1993, pp. 541–3. Google [https://books.google.com/books?id=DnvLHp919_wC&q=Marquand Preview]. See [[Arthur W. Burks|Burks, Arthur W.]], "Review: Charles S. Peirce, ''The new elements of mathematics''", ''Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society'' v. 84, n. 5 (1978), pp. 913–18, see 917. [http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS/Repository/1.0/Disseminate?view=body&id=pdf_1&handle=euclid.bams/1183541145 PDF Eprint].</ref> Eventually, [[vacuum tube]]s replaced relays for logic operations. [[Lee De Forest]]'s modification of the [[Fleming valve]] in 1907 could be used as an [[AND gate]]. [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] introduced a version of the 16-row [[truth table]] as proposition 5.101 of ''[[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]'' (1921). [[Walther Bothe]], inventor of the [[coincidence circuit]], shared the 1954 [[Nobel Prize]] in physics, for creating the first modern electronic AND gate in 1924.

[[Mechanical computer|Mechanical]] [[analog computer]]s started appearing in the first century and were later used in the medieval era for astronomical calculations. In [[World War II]], mechanical analog computers were used for specialized military applications such as calculating torpedo aiming. During this time the first electronic [[Digital data|digital]] computers were developed, with the term ''digital'' being proposed by [[George Stibitz#Origin of the term "digital"|George Stibitz in 1942]]. Originally they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern [[personal computer|PC]]s.<ref>In 1946, [[ENIAC]] required an estimated 174&nbsp;kW. By comparison, a modern laptop computer may use around 30&nbsp;W; nearly six thousand times less. {{cite web |url = http://www.upenn.edu/computing/provider/docs/hardware/powerusage.html |title = Approximate Desktop & Notebook Power Usage |publisher = University of Pennsylvania |access-date = 20 June 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090603230016/http://www.upenn.edu/computing/provider/docs/hardware/powerusage.html |archive-date = 3 June 2009 |url-status = dead |df = dmy-all }}</ref>

[[Claude Shannon]], demonstrating that electrical applications of Boolean algebra could construct any logical numerical relationship, ultimately laid the foundations of digital computing and digital circuits in his [[A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits|master's thesis]] of 1937, which is considered to be arguably the most important master's thesis ever written, winning the [[Alfred Noble Prize#Recipients|1939 Alfred Noble Prize]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Noah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LUjpDwAAQBAJ&dq=establishing+the+theory+behind+digital+computing+and+digital+circuits+claude+shannon&pg=PA87 |title=The Industrialization of Intelligence: Mind and Machine in the Modern Age |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group |isbn=978-0-8153-4954-9 |series= |location=London New York |pages=87–89 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Chow |first=Rony |date=2021-06-05 |title=Claude Shannon: The Father of Information Theory |url=https://www.historyofdatascience.com/claude-shannon/ |access-date=2024-11-05 |website=History of Data Science |language=en-US}}</ref>

The [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]] was an [[electromechanical computer]] designed by [[Konrad Zuse]]. Finished in 1941, it was the world's first working [[Computer programming|programmable]], fully automatic digital computer.<ref>{{cite news|title = A Computer Pioneer Rediscovered, 50 Years On|url = https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/20/news/20iht-zuse.html|newspaper = The New York Times|date = April 20, 1994}}</ref> Its operation was facilitated by the invention of the vacuum tube in 1904 by [[John Ambrose Fleming]].

At the same time that digital calculation replaced analog, purely [[electronic circuit]] elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents. [[John Bardeen]] and [[Walter Brattain]] invented the [[point-contact transistor]] at [[Bell Labs]] in 1947, followed by [[William Shockley]] inventing the [[bipolar junction transistor]] at Bell Labs in 1948.<ref name="Lee">{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Thomas H. |title=The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits |date=2003 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9781139643771 |url=https://web.stanford.edu/class/archive/ee/ee214/ee214.1032/Handouts/HO2.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://web.stanford.edu/class/archive/ee/ee214/ee214.1032/Handouts/HO2.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Puers">{{cite book |last1=Puers |first1=Robert |last2=Baldi |first2=Livio |last3=Voorde |first3=Marcel Van de |last4=Nooten |first4=Sebastiaan E. van |title=Nanoelectronics: Materials, Devices, Applications, 2 Volumes |date=2017 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Son]]s |isbn=9783527340538 |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOqVDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14}}</ref>

At the [[University of Manchester]], a team under the leadership of [[Tom Kilburn]] designed and built a machine using the newly developed [[transistor]]s instead of vacuum tubes.<ref>{{Citation|last = Lavington|first = Simon|title = A History of Manchester Computers|year = 1998|edition = 2|publisher = The British Computer Society|location = Swindon|pages = 34–35}}</ref> Their "[[Transistor computer|transistorised computer]]", and the first in the world, was [[Manchester computers#Transistor Computer|operational by 1953]], and a second version was completed there in April 1955. From 1955 and onwards, transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation" of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors were smaller, more reliable, had indefinite lifespans, and required less power than vacuum tubes - thereby giving off less heat, and allowing much denser concentrations of circuits, up to tens of thousands in a relatively compact space.

In 1955, [[Carl Frosch]] and Lincoln Derick discovered silicon dioxide surface passivation effects.<ref>{{Cite patent|number=US2802760A|title=Oxidation of semiconductive surfaces for controlled diffusion|gdate=1957-08-13|invent1=Lincoln|invent2=Frosch|inventor1-first=Derick|inventor2-first=Carl J.|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2802760A}}</ref> In 1957 Frosch and Derick, using masking and predeposition, were able to manufacture silicon dioxide field effect transistors; the first planar transistors, in which drain and source were adjacent at the same surface.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Frosch |first1=C. J. |last2=Derick |first2=L |date=1957 |title=Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.2428650 |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |language=en |volume=104 |issue=9 |pages=547 |doi=10.1149/1.2428650|url-access=subscription }}</ref> At Bell Labs, the importance of Frosch and Derick technique and transistors was immediately realized. Results of their work circulated around Bell Labs in the form of BTL memos before being published in 1957. At [[Shockley Semiconductor]], Shockley had circulated the preprint of their article in December 1956 to all his senior staff, including [[Jean Hoerni]],<ref name="Moskowitz">{{cite book |last1=Moskowitz |first1=Sanford L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2STRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168 |title=Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century |date=2016 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-0-470-50892-3 |page=168}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Christophe Lécuyer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LaZpUpkG70QC&pg=PA62 |title=Makers of the Microchip: A Documentary History of Fairchild Semiconductor |author2=David C. Brook |author3=Jay Last |date=2010 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-01424-3 |pages=62–63}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Claeys |first1=Cor L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bu22JNYbE5MC&pg=PA27 |title=ULSI Process Integration III: Proceedings of the International Symposium |date=2003 |publisher=[[The Electrochemical Society]] |isbn=978-1-56677-376-8 |pages=27–30}}</ref><ref name="Lojek120">{{cite book |last1=Lojek |first1=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9783540342588 |page=120}}</ref> who would later invent the [[planar process]] in 1959 while at [[Fairchild Semiconductor]].<ref>{{patent|US|3025589|Hoerni, J. A.: "Method of Manufacturing Semiconductor Devices” filed May 1, 1959}}</ref><ref>{{patent|US|3064167|Hoerni, J. A.: "Semiconductor device" filed May 15, 1960}}</ref> At Bell Labs, J.R. Ligenza and W.G. Spitzer studied the mechanism of thermally grown oxides, fabricated a high quality Si/[[Silicon dioxide|SiO<sub>2</sub>]] stack and published their results in 1960.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ligenza |first1=J. R. |last2=Spitzer |first2=W. G. |date=1960-07-01 |title=The mechanisms for silicon oxidation in steam and oxygen |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0022369760902195 |journal=Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids |volume=14 |pages=131–136 |doi=10.1016/0022-3697(60)90219-5 |bibcode=1960JPCS...14..131L |issn=0022-3697|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Deal2">{{cite book |last1=Deal |first1=Bruce E. |title=Silicon materials science and technology |date=1998 |publisher=[[The Electrochemical Society]] |isbn=978-1566771931 |page=183 |chapter=Highlights Of Silicon Thermal Oxidation Technology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cr8FPGkiRS0C&pg=PA183}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lojek |first1=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3540342588 |page=322}}</ref> Following this research at Bell Labs, [[Mohamed Atalla]] and [[Dawon Kahng]] proposed a silicon MOS transistor in 1959<ref name="Bassett222">{{cite book |last1=Bassett |first1=Ross Knox |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UUbB3d2UnaAC&pg=PA22 |title=To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology |date=2007 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8018-8639-3 |pages=22–23}}</ref> and successfully demonstrated a working MOS device with their Bell Labs team in 1960.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Atalla |first1=M. |author1-link=Mohamed Atalla |last2=Kahng |first2=D. |author2-link=Dawon Kahng |date=1960 |title=Silicon-silicon dioxide field induced surface devices |journal=IRE-AIEE Solid State Device Research Conference}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=1960 – Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/ |journal=The Silicon Engine |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=2023-01-16}}</ref> The team included E. E. LaBate and E. I. Povilonis who fabricated the device; M. O. Thurston, L. A. D’Asaro, and J. R. Ligenza who developed the diffusion processes, and H. K. Gummel and R. Lindner who characterized the device.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=KAHNG |first=D. |date=1961 |title=Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device |url=https://doi.org/10.1142/9789814503464_0076 |journal=Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories |pages=583–596 |doi=10.1142/9789814503464_0076 |isbn=978-981-02-0209-5|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lojek |first=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-540-34258-8 |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |page=321}}</ref>

While working at [[Texas Instruments]] in July 1958, [[Jack Kilby]] recorded his initial ideas concerning the [[integrated circuit]] (IC), then successfully demonstrated the first working integrated circuit on 12 September 1958.<ref name="TIJackBuilt">{{cite web |url=http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/kilbyctr/jackbuilt.shtml |title=The Chip that Jack Built |date=2008 |publisher=Texas Instruments |access-date=29 May 2008}}</ref> Kilby's chip was made of [[germanium]]. The following year, [[Robert Noyce]] at [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] invented the [[silicon]] integrated circuit. The basis for Noyce's silicon IC was Hoerni's [[planar process]].

The MOSFET's advantages include [[MOSFET scaling|high scalability]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Motoyoshi |first1=M. |date=2009 |title=Through-Silicon Via (TSV) |journal=Proceedings of the IEEE |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=43–48 |doi=10.1109/JPROC.2008.2007462 |issn=0018-9219 |s2cid=29105721}}</ref> affordability,<ref name="computerhistory-digital">{{cite web |title=Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race - CHM Revolution |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/digital-logic/12/279 |access-date=22 July 2019 |website=[[Computer History Museum]]}}</ref> low power consumption, and high [[transistor density]].<ref>{{cite news |date=12 December 2018 |title=Transistors Keep Moore's Law Alive |url=https://www.eetimes.com/author.asp?section_id=36&doc_id=1334068 |access-date=18 July 2019 |work=[[EETime]]s}}</ref> Its rapid on–off [[electronic switch]]ing speed also makes it ideal for generating [[pulse train]]s,<ref name="electronicdesign">{{cite magazine |date=23 May 2016 |title=Applying MOSFETs to Today's Power-Switching Designs |url=https://www.electronicdesign.com/mosfets/applying-mosfets-today-s-power-switching-designs |access-date=10 August 2019 |magazine=[[Electronic Design]]}}</ref> the basis for electronic [[digital signal]]s,<ref>{{cite book |author=B. SOMANATHAN NAIR |title=Digital electronics and logic design |date=2002 |publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=9788120319561 |page=289 |quote=Digital signals are fixed-width pulses, which occupy only one of two levels of amplitude.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Joseph Migga Kizza |title=Computer Network Security |date=2005 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9780387204734}}</ref> in contrast to BJTs which, more slowly, generate [[analog signal]]s resembling [[sine wave]]s.<ref name="electronicdesign" /> Along with MOS [[large-scale integration]] (LSI), these factors make the MOSFET an important switching device for [[digital circuit]]s.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N6FDii6_nSEC&pg=PA151 |title=2000 Solved Problems in Digital Electronics |date=2005 |publisher=[[Tata McGraw-Hill Education]] |isbn=978-0-07-058831-8 |page=151}}</ref> The MOSFET revolutionized the [[electronics industry]],<ref name="Chan">{{cite book |last1=Chan |first1=Yi-Jen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sV4eAQAAMAAJ |title=Studies of InAIAs/InGaAs and GaInP/GaAs heterostructure FET's for high speed applications |date=1992 |publisher=[[University of Michigan]] |page=1 |quote=The Si MOSFET has revolutionized the electronics industry and as a result impacts our daily lives in almost every conceivable way.}}</ref><ref name="Grant">{{cite book |last1=Grant |first1=Duncan Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZiZTAAAAMAAJ |title=Power MOSFETS: theory and applications |last2=Gowar |first2=John |date=1989 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |isbn=9780471828679 |page=1 |quote=The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is the most commonly used active device in the very large-scale integration of digital integrated circuits (VLSI). During the 1970s these components revolutionized electronic signal processing, control systems and computers.}}</ref> and is the most common [[semiconductor device]].<ref name="computerhistory-transistor">{{cite web |date=4 December 2013 |title=Who Invented the Transistor? |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-transistor/ |access-date=20 July 2019 |website=[[Computer History Museum]]}}</ref><ref name="Golio">{{cite book |last1=Golio |first1=Mike |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MCj9jxSVQKIC&pg=SA18-PA2 |title=RF and Microwave Passive and Active Technologies |last2=Golio |first2=Janet |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9781420006728 |pages=18–2}}</ref>

In the early days of [[integrated circuit]]s, each chip was limited to only a few transistors, and the low degree of integration meant the design process was relatively simple. Manufacturing yields were also quite low by today's standards. The wide adoption of the MOSFET transistor by the early 1970s led to the first [[large-scale integration]] (LSI) chips with more than 10,000 transistors on a single chip.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hittinger |first1=William C. |title=Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology |journal=Scientific American |date=1973 |volume=229 |issue=2 |pages=48–59 |issn=0036-8733|jstor=24923169 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48 |bibcode=1973SciAm.229b..48H }}</ref> Following the wide adoption of [[CMOS]], a type of MOSFET logic, by the 1980s, millions and then billions of MOSFETs could be placed on one chip as the technology progressed,<ref>{{cite magazine |author=Peter Clarke |title=Intel enters billion-transistor processor era |url=http://www.eetimes.com/news/latest/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=172301051 |magazine=EE Times |date=14 October 2005}}</ref> and good designs required thorough planning, giving rise to [[Integrated circuit design|new design method]]s. The [[transistor count]] of devices and total production rose to unprecedented heights. The total amount of transistors produced until 2018 has been estimated to be {{Val|1.3E22}} (13{{nbsp}}[[sextillion]]).<ref name="computerhistory2018">{{cite web |title=13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/13-sextillion-counting-the-long-winding-road-to-the-most-frequently-manufactured-human-artifact-in-history/ |date=April 2, 2018 |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=12 October 2020}}</ref>

The [[wireless revolution]] (the introduction and proliferation of [[wireless network]]s) began in the 1990s and was enabled by the wide adoption of MOSFET-based [[RF power amplifier]]s ([[power MOSFET]] and [[LDMOS]]) and [[RF circuit]]s ([[RF CMOS]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Golio |first1=Mike |last2=Golio |first2=Janet |title=RF and Microwave Passive and Active Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9781420006728 |pages=ix, I-1, 18-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MCj9jxSVQKIC&pg=PR9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rappaport |first1=T. S. |title=The wireless revolution |journal=IEEE Communications Magazine |date=November 1991 |volume=29 |issue=11 |pages=52–71 |doi=10.1109/35.109666 |s2cid=46573735 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The wireless revolution |url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/1999/01/21/the-wireless-revolution |access-date=12 September 2019 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=January 21, 1999}}</ref> Wireless networks allowed for public digital transmission without the need for cables, leading to [[digital television]], [[satellite radio|satellite]] and [[digital radio]], [[GPS]], [[wireless Internet]] and [[mobile phone]]s through the 1990s{{ndash}}2000s.