Editing Diocletian (section)

==Early life==
[[File:Salona - amphitheatre - panorama.jpg|thumb|upright=2.0|Panorama of amphitheatre in [[Salona]]]]
Diocletian was born in [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]], probably at or near the town of [[Salona]] (modern [[Solin, Croatia|Solin]], [[Croatia]]), to which he retired later in life. His original name was Diocles (in full, Gaius Valerius Diocles),<ref name="names">{{cite book |last=Cambi |first=Nenad |editor=A. Demandt |editor2=A. Goltz |editor3=H. Schlange-Schöningen |title=Diokletian und die Tetrarchie |chapter=Tetrarchic Practice in Name Giving |volume=98 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=De0fAAAAQBAJ |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=De0fAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 |isbn=978-3-11-091460-3 |date=2012 |pages=38–45 |location=Berlin |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |access-date=15 May 2022 |archive-date=19 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319112358/https://books.google.com/books?id=De0fAAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> possibly derived from Dioclea, the name of both his mother and her supposed [[Doclea (Illyria)|place of birth]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1982|1p=31|2a1=Williams|2y=1985|2pp=22, 237}} Diocletian's official birthday was 22 December, and his year of birth has been estimated at between 242 and 245 based on a statement that he was aged 68 at death (the year is not certain either).{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1982|1pp=30–31|2a1=Williams|2y=1985|2pp=22, 238}} His parents were of low status; [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]] records "that he is said by most writers to have been the son of a scribe, but by some to have been a freedman of a senator called Anulinus." The first forty years of his life are mostly obscure.{{sfnm|1a1=Eutropius|1loc=9.19|2a1=Barnes|2y=1981|2p=4|3a1=CAH|3p=68|4a1=Potter|4y=2005|4pp=22–23}} Diocletian was an [[Illyrian emperors|''Illyricianus'']] who served under [[Aurelian]] and [[Probus (emperor)|Probus]].<ref name=Wilkes>{{Cite book|last=Wilkes|first=John J.|author-link=J. J. Wilkes|title=The Illyrians|location=Oxford|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=1992|isbn=0-631-19807-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C|page=263|access-date=17 September 2021|archive-date=19 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319112350/https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C|url-status=live|quote=The army chose another of the Illyriciani to succeed him. Carus, who may have come from Narona in Dalmatia, was another competent general but died on campaign in Persia after reigning only ten months. In the Autumn of 284 the army, while on its march back from the east, chose another of the Illyriciani, C. Valerius Diocles, later known as Diocletian, and the Roman Empire entered a new era. Aged around 40 at his accession, Diocletian was another of the Illyriciani schooled and promoted by Aurelian, and had risen from a humble origin in Salona on the Dalmatian coast.}}</ref> According to some scholars Diocles was trained and promoted by Aurelian<ref name=Wilkes/>{{sfn|Odahl|2004|pp=36-40}} and Probus,{{sfn|Odahl|2004|pp=36-40}} according to other scholars there is no reliable evidence of Diocles's early career.{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=31}}{{sfn|Williams|1985|p=26}} The 12th-century [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] chronicler [[Joannes Zonaras]] states that he was ''[[Dux]] [[Moesia]]e'',{{sfnm|1a1=Zonaras|1loc=12.31|2a1=Southern|2y=2001|3a1=Williams|3y=1985|3p=26}} a commander of forces on the lower [[Danube]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mathisen|1y=1997|2a1=Williams|2y=1985|2p=26}} The often-unreliable ''[[Historia Augusta]]'' states that he served in [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]], but this is not corroborated by other sources and is ignored by modern historians.{{sfnm|1a1=Historia Augusta|1loc="Vita Carini" 14–15|2a1=Williams|2y=1985|2p=26}} The first time Diocletian's whereabouts are accurately established was in 282 when the Emperor [[Carus]] made him commander of the ''[[Protectores domestici]]'', the elite cavalry force directly attached to the Imperial household. This post earned him the honor of a consulship in 283.{{sfn|Williams|1985|p=33}}

===Death of Numerian===
Carus's death, amid a successful war with Persia and in mysterious circumstances{{sfn|Williams|1985|p=36}}&nbsp;– he was believed to have been struck by lightning or killed by Persian soldiers<ref>{{cite book |last= Mommsen |first= Theodor |author-link= Theodor Mommsen |others= Barbara Demandt, Alexander Demandt, [[Thomas Ernst Josef Wiedemann|Thomas E. J. Wiedemann]] |title= A History of Rome Under the Emperors |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Dk2FAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA346 |year= 1999 |orig-year= 1856 |location= London |publisher= Routledge |isbn= 978-0-415-20647-1 |pages= 346–348 |quote= Those accounts we do possess stem from outsiders who in fact know nothing. |access-date= 22 December 2022 |archive-date= 22 December 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221222212212/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dk2FAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA346 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Harries |first=Jill |title=Imperial Rome AD 284 to 363: The New Empire |date=2012 |page=27 |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-2052-4 |jstor=10.3366/j.ctt1g0b463 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNqqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 |access-date=17 February 2023 |archive-date=19 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319112355/https://books.google.com/books?id=QNqqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 |url-status=live }}</ref>&nbsp;– left his sons [[Numerian]] and Carinus as the new ''Augusti''. Carinus quickly made his way to Rome from his post in Gaul and arrived there by January 284, becoming the legitimate Emperor in the West. Numerian lingered in the East.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=4}} The Roman withdrawal from Persia was orderly and unopposed.{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=133}} The [[Sassanid]] king [[Bahram II]] could not field an army against them as he was still struggling to establish his authority. By March 284, Numerian had only reached [[Homs|Emesa (Homs)]] in [[Syria]]; by November, only Asia Minor.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=4}}{{sfn|Leadbetter|2001a}} In Emesa he was apparently still alive and in good health: he issued the only extant [[rescript]] in his name there,{{sfnm|1a1=Cod. Justinianus|1loc=5.52.2|2a1=Leadbetter|2y=2001a|3a1=Potter|3y=2005|3p=279}}{{refn|Coins were issued in his name in [[Cyzicus]] some time before the end of 284, but it is impossible to know whether he was still in the public eye by that point.<ref>''[[Roman Imperial Coinage]]'' Vol. 5.2, "Numerian" no. 462</ref>{{sfn|Potter|2005|pp=279–280}}|group="Note"}} but after he left the city, his staff, including the prefect [[Aper (praetorian prefect)|Aper]] (Numerian's father-in-law and the dominant influence in his entourage),{{sfn|Williams|1985|p=34}} reported that he suffered from an inflammation of the eyes. He traveled in a closed coach from then on.{{sfn|Leadbetter|2001a}} When the army reached [[Bithynia]],{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=4}} some of the soldiers smelled an odor emanating from the coach.{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=133}} They opened its curtains and found Numerian dead.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=4}}{{sfnm|1a1=Leadbetter|1y=2001a|2a1=Odahl|2y=2004|2p=39|3a1=Williams|3y=1985|3p=35}} Both [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]] and [[Aurelius Victor]] describe Numerian's death as an assassination.{{sfnm|1a1=Eutropius|1loc=9.19|2a1=Epit. Caesaribus|2loc=39.1}}

Aper officially broke the news in [[Nicomedia]] ([[İzmit]]) in November.{{sfn|Potter|2005|p=280}} Numerian's generals and tribunes called a council for the succession, and chose Diocles as Emperor,{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=4}}{{sfnm|1a1=CAH|1p=68|2a1=Williams|2y=1985|2pp=435–436}} in spite of Aper's attempts to garner support.{{sfn|Potter|2005|p=280}} On 20 November 284, the army of the east gathered on a hill {{convert|5|km|mi}} outside Nicomedia. The army unanimously saluted Diocles as their new ''Augustus'', and he accepted the purple imperial vestments. He raised his sword to the light of the sun and swore an oath disclaiming responsibility for Numerian's death. He asserted that Aper had killed Numerian and concealed it.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1pp=4–5|2a1=Odahl|2y=2004|2pp=39–40|3a1=Williams|3y=1985|3pp=36–37}} In full view of the army, Diocles drew his sword and killed Aper.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1pp=4–5|2a1=Leadbetter|2y=2001a|3a1=Odahl|3y=2004|3pp=39–40|4a1=Williams|4y=1985|4p=37}} Soon after Aper's death, Diocles changed his name to the more Latinate "Diocletianus"{{sfn|Corcoran|2006|p=39}}&nbsp;– in full, Gaius Valerius Diocletianus.<ref name="names"/>{{refn|He initially reigned under the name "[[Marcus Aurelius]] Gaius Valerius Diocletianus", but this formula didn't last long. He reverted back to "Gaius Valerius Diocles" after his retirement.<ref name="names"/>|group="Note"}}

===Conflict with Carinus===
[[File:Montemartini - Carino 1030439.JPG|thumb|upright|Head of [[Carinus]] at the [[Centrale Montemartini]]]]
After his accession, Diocletian and [[Lucius Caesonius Ovinius Manlius Rufinianus Bassus|Lucius Caesonius Bassus]] were named as consuls and assumed the ''[[fasces]]'' in place of Carinus and Numerian.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1p=5|2a1=CAH|2p=69|3a1=Potter|3y=2005|3p=280|4a1=Southern|4y=2001|4p=134}} Bassus was a member of a [[Roman Senate|senatorial]] family from [[Campania]], a former [[Roman consul|consul]] and proconsul of Africa, chosen by [[Probus (emperor)|Probus]] for signal distinction.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=5}} He was skilled in areas of government where Diocletian presumably had no experience.{{sfn|Potter|2005|p=280}} Diocletian's elevation of Bassus symbolized his rejection of Carinus' government in Rome, his refusal to accept second-tier status to any other emperor,{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=5}} and his willingness to continue the long-standing collaboration between the empire's senatorial and military aristocracies.{{sfn|Potter|2005|p=280}} It also tied his success to that of the Senate, whose support he would need in his advance on Rome.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=5}}

Diocletian was not the only challenger to Carinus' rule; the usurper [[Julian of Pannonia|Julianus]], Carinus' ''corrector Venetiae'', took control of northern [[Italy]] and [[Pannonia]] after Diocletian's accession.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1p=5|2a1=CAH|2p=69|3a1=Leadbetter|3y=2001b}}{{sfnm|1a1=Southern|1y=2001|1pp=134–135|2a1=Williams|2y=1985|2p=38|3a1=Banchich|3y=1997}} Julianus minted coins from Siscia ([[Sisak]], Croatia) declaring himself emperor and promising freedom. This aided Diocletian in his portrayal of Carinus as a cruel and oppressive tyrant.{{sfnm|1a1=Southern|1y=2001|1pp=134–135|2a1=Williams|2y=1985|2p=38}} Julianus' forces were weak, and were handily dispersed when Carinus' armies moved from Britain to northern Italy. As the leader of the united East, Diocletian was clearly the greater threat.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1p=5|2a1=CAH|2p=69|3a1=Leadbetter|3y=2001b}} Over the winter of 284–85, Diocletian advanced west across the [[Balkans]]. In the spring, some time before the end of May,{{sfnm|1a1=CAH|1p=69|2a1=Potter|2y=2005|2p=280}} his armies met Carinus' across the river Margus ([[Great Morava]]) in [[Moesia]]. In modern accounts, the site has been located between the Mons Aureus (Seone, west of [[Smederevo]]) and [[Viminacium]],{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=5}} near modern [[Belgrade]], Serbia.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1p=5|2a1=Odahl|2y=2004|2p=40|3a1=Southern|3y=2001|3p=135}}

Despite having a stronger, more powerful army, Carinus held the weaker position. His rule was unpopular, and it was later alleged that he had mistreated the Senate and seduced his officers' wives.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1p=5|2a1=Williams|2y=1985|2pp=37–38}} It is possible that [[Constantius Chlorus|Flavius Constantius]], the governor of Dalmatia and Diocletian's associate in the household guard, had already defected to Diocletian in the early spring.{{sfnm|1a1=Potter|1y=2005|1p=280|2a1=Williams|2y=1985|2p=37}} When the [[Battle of the Margus]] began, Carinus' prefect [[Titus Claudius Aurelius Aristobulus|Aristobulus]] also defected.{{sfn|Potter|2005|p=280}} In the course of the battle, Carinus was killed by his own men. Following Diocletian's victory, both the western and the eastern armies acclaimed him as Emperor.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1y=1981|1p=5|2a1=CAH|2p=69|3a1=Odahl|3y=2004|3p=40|4a1=Williams|4y=1985|4p=38}} Diocletian exacted an oath of allegiance from the defeated army and departed for Italy.{{sfnm|1a1=Southern|1y=2001|1p=135|2a1=Williams|2y=1985|2p=38}}