Editing Doctorate (section)

==History==
===Middle Ages===
The term ''doctor'' derives from Latin, meaning "teacher" or "instructor". The doctorate (Latin: ''doctoratus'') appeared in [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]] as a license to teach Latin (''licentia docendi'') at a [[medieval university|university]].<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Doctor, doctoratus">{{citation |last=Verger |first=J. |contribution=Doctor, doctoratus |title=Lexikon des Mittelalters |volume=3 |pages=1155–1156 |publisher=J.B. Metzler |place=Stuttgart |year=1999|title-link=Lexikon des Mittelalters }}</ref> Its roots can be traced to the [[early church]] in which the term ''doctor'' referred to the [[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostles]], [[Church Fathers]], and other [[Christianity|Christian]] authorities who taught and [[Exegesis|interpreted the Bible]].<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Doctor, doctoratus" />

The right to grant a ''licentia docendi'' (i.e. the doctorate) was originally reserved to the [[Catholic Church]], which required the applicant to pass a test, take an [[oath of allegiance]], and pay a fee. The [[Third Council of the Lateran]] of 1179 guaranteed access—at that time essentially free of charge—to all able applicants. Applicants were tested for aptitude.<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia">{{citation |last=Verger |first=J. |contribution=Licentia |title=Lexikon des Mittelalters |volume=5 |pages=1957–1958 |publisher=J.B. Metzler |place=Stuttgart |year=1999|title-link=Lexikon des Mittelalters }}</ref> This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the universities, slowly distancing themselves from the Church. In 1213 the right was granted by the [[pope]] to the [[University of Paris]], where it became a universal license to teach (''licentia ubique docendi'').<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia" /> However, while the ''licentia'' continued to hold a higher prestige than the [[bachelor's degree]] (''baccalaureus''), the latter was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the master's degree (''magister'') and doctorate, both of which now became the accepted teaching qualifications.<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia" /> According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree<!--Keith 1994 does not specify the exact type of the first doctorates--> was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150 by the University of Paris.<ref>Keith Allan Noble, ''Changing doctoral degrees: an international perspective'', Society for Research into Higher Education, 1994, p. 8.</ref>

[[George Makdisi]] theorizes that the ''[[ijazah]]'' issued in early Islamic [[madrasah]]s was the origin of the doctorate later issued in medieval European [[universities]].<ref name="Makdisi">{{citation|doi=10.2307/604423|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|jstor=604423|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]}}</ref><ref name="stewart">{{cite book|last=Devin J. Stewart|first=Josef W. Meri|journal=[[Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia]]|title=Degrees, or Ijazah|date=2005|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781135455965|pages=201–203|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1ZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201}}</ref> [[Alfred Guillaume]] and [[Syed Farid al-Attas]] agree that there is a resemblance between the ''ijazah'' and the ''licentia docendi''.<ref name="Alatas">{{cite journal |last1=Al-Attas |first1=Syed Farid |author1-link=Syed Farid al-Attas |title=From Jāmi' ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue |journal=[[Current Sociology]] |date=1 January 2006 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837 |s2cid=144509355 |issn=0011-3921 |quote=In the 1930s, the renowned Orientalist Alfred Guillaume noted strong resemblances between Muslim and Western Christian institutions of higher learning. An example he cited is the ijazah, which he recognized as being akin to the medieval licentia docendi, the precursor of the modern university degree.|url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439 }}</ref> However, [[Toby Huff]] and others reject Makdisi's theory.<ref>{{cite book|last=Huff|first=Toby E.|title=The rise of early modern science : Islam, China, and the West|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0521529945|edition=2. ed., repr.|location=Cambridge [u.a.]|page=155|quote=It remains the case that no equivalent of the bachelor's degree, the licentia docendi, or higher degrees ever emerged in the medieval or early modern Islamic ''madrasas''.|author-link=Toby Huff}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Verger|first=J.|title=Lexikon des Mittelalters|volume=3|year=1999|at=cols 1155–1156|contribution=Doctor, doctoratus|place=Stuttgart|publisher=J.B. Metzler|title-link=Lexikon des Mittelalters}}</ref><ref>Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''[[A History of the University in Europe|A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages]]'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. XIX: "No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities – the bachelor's degree, the licentiate, the master's degree, and the doctorate – have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world."</ref><ref>Norman Daniel: Review of "The Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West by George Makdisi", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 104, No. 3 (Jul. – Sep., 1984), pp. 586–588 (587)</ref> [[Devin J. Stewart]] notes a difference in the granting authority (individual professor for the ''ijzazah'' and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate).<ref name="stewart3">{{cite encyclopedia|first=Devin J.|last=Stewart|editor-first=Josef W.|editor-last=Meri|encyclopedia=[[Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia]]|title=Degrees, or Ijazah|date=2005|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781135455965|pages=201–203|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1ZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201|quote=The license to teach law and issue legal opinions [...] is the type of ijazah that resembles the medieval European university degree most closely [...] The main difference between the two is that the granting authority is an individual professor, in the Islamic case, rather than a corporate institution in the case of the university. Despite this point, Makdisi has likened the ijazat al-ifta' wa'l-tadris to the medieval Latin licentia docendi and suggests that it served as a model for that degree.|author-link=Devin J. Stewart}}</ref>

===17th and 18th centuries===
[[File:Claude Bernard's thesis for his doctorate Wellcome M0011459.jpg|thumb|Cover of the [[thesis]] presented by [[Claude Bernard]] to obtain his [[Doctor of Medicine]] degree (1843)]]
The [[doctorate of philosophy]] developed in Germany in the 17th century (likely {{circa}} 1652).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://erhard-weigel-gesellschaft.de.dedi2970.your-server.de/biographie-weigels/ |title=Erhard-Weigel-Gesellschaft: Biographie Weigels |website=Erhard-weigel-gesellschaft.de |access-date=2016-10-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114124147/http://erhard-weigel-gesellschaft.de.dedi2970.your-server.de/biographie-weigels/ |archive-date=2016-11-14 }}</ref> The term "philosophy" does not refer here to the field or academic discipline of [[philosophy]]; it is used in a broader sense under its original [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] meaning of "love of wisdom". In most of [[Europe]], all fields ([[history]], philosophy, [[social sciences]], [[mathematics]], and [[natural philosophy]]/[[natural sciences]])<ref>Sooyoung Chang, ''Academic Genealogy of Mathematicians'', World Scientific, 2010, p. 183.</ref> were traditionally known as philosophy, and in [[Germany]] and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of [[liberal arts]] was known as the "faculty of philosophy". The Doctorate of Philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though most degrees are not for the study of philosophy. Chris Park explains that it was not until formal education and degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the Doctorate of Philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree,<ref name="Redefining the Doctorate">Park, C. (2007), [https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/gradschool/about/external/publications/redefining-the-doctorate.pdf ''Redefining the Doctorate''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014331/https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/gradschool/about/external/publications/redefining-the-doctorate.pdf |date=2016-10-06 }}, York, UK: The Higher Education Academy, p. 4.</ref> abbreviated as Dr. phil. (similar to Ph.D. in Anglo-American countries). Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in philosophy and doctorates in the natural sciences, abbreviated as [[Dr. rer. nat.]] and also doctorates in the social/political sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. pol., similar to the other traditional doctorates in medicine (Dr. med.) and law (Dr. jur.).

University doctoral training was a form of [[apprenticeship]] to a [[guild]]. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the [[master's degree]].

University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The first women to be granted doctorates were [[Juliana Morell]] in 1608 at Lyons<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Juliana_Morell|title=Juliana Morell|encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopaedia|date=1913|access-date=2016-10-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018200827/https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Juliana_Morell|archive-date=2016-10-18|url-status=live}}</ref> or maybe Avignon (she "defended theses" in 1606 or 1607, although claims that she received a doctorate in [[Canon law of the Catholic Church|canon law]] in 1608 have been discredited),{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} [[Elena Cornaro Piscopia]] in 1678 at the [[University of Padua]], [[Laura Bassi]] in 1732 at [[Bologna University]], [[Dorothea Erxleben]] in 1754 at [[Halle University]] and [[María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda]] in 1785 at [[Complutense University]], Madrid.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uah.es/universidad/presentacion/historia_universidad.shtm|title=Universidad de Alcalá|author=Universidad de Alcala (UAH), Madrid|work=uah.es|access-date=2012-11-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007070354/http://www.uah.es/universidad/presentacion/historia_universidad.shtm|archive-date=2012-10-07|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Modern times===
[[File:Graduation photo.jpg|alt=Man and woman wearing Durham and Glasgow PhD gowns, respectively.|thumb|Man and woman wearing Durham and Glasgow PhD gowns, respectively]]
The use and meaning of the doctorate have changed over time and are subject to regional variations. For instance, until the early 20th century, few academic staff or professors in [[English (language)|English-speaking]] universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in [[Holy Orders|holy orders]]. After that time, the [[Higher education in Germany|German practice]] of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread. Universities' shift to research-oriented education (based upon the scientific method, inquiry, and observation) increased the doctorate's importance. Today, a research doctorate (PhD) or its equivalent (as defined in the US by the [[National Science Foundation|NSF]]) is generally a prerequisite for an [[Academia|academic]] career. However, many recipients do not work in academia.

Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward. The first professional doctorate offered in the United States was the [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]] at Kings College (now [[Columbia University]]) after the medical school's founding in 1767.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/content/history.html|title=A Brief History of Columbia|work=columbia.edu|access-date=2016-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517080232/http://www.columbia.edu/content/history.html|archive-date=2016-05-17|url-status=live}}</ref> However, this was not a professional doctorate in the modern American sense. It was awarded for further study after the qualifying Bachelor of Medicine (MB) rather than a qualifying degree.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ps.columbia.edu/about-ps/history-college-physicians-and-surgeons|title=History of the College of Physicians and Surgeons|publisher=Columbia University|access-date=7 October 2016|quote=King's College organized a medical faculty in 1767 and was the first institution in the North American Colonies to confer the degree of Doctor of Medicine. The first graduates in medicine from the College were Robert Tucker and Samuel Kissarn, who received the degree of Bachelor of Medicine in May 1769, and that of Doctor of Medicine in May 1770 and May 1771, respectively.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005185728/http://ps.columbia.edu/about-ps/history-college-physicians-and-surgeons|archive-date=5 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The MD became the standard first degree in medicine in the US during the 19th century, but as a three-year undergraduate degree. It did not become established as a graduate degree until 1930. As the standard qualifying degree in medicine, the MD gave that profession the ability (through the [[American Medical Association]], established in 1847 for this purpose) to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/trainingforpubl00goog|author=Reed, A. |date=1921|title=Training for the Public Profession of the Law|work= Carnegie's Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Bulletin 15.|publisher=Boston: Merrymount Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/trainingforpubl00goog/page/n184 162]–164}}</ref><ref name="Medline">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001936.htm|title=Doctor of medicine profession (MD)|encyclopedia=Medical Encyclopedia|publisher=MedlinePlus|access-date=7 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009184412/https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001936.htm|archive-date=9 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:Professors.JPG|thumb|American academic doctors gather before the commencement exercises at [[Brigham Young University]] (April 2008). The American code for academic dress identifies academic doctors with three bands of velvet on the sleeve of the doctoral gown.]]In the shape of the German-style PhD, the modern research degree was first awarded in the US in 1861, at [[Yale University]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.edu/timeline|title=Landmarks in Yale's history|work=yale.edu|date=3 August 2015}}</ref> This differed from the MD in that the latter was a vocational "[[professional degree]]" that trained students to apply or practice knowledge rather than generate it, similar to other students in vocational schools or institutes. In the UK, research doctorates initially took higher doctorates in Science and Letters, first introduced at [[Durham University]] in 1882.<ref name="higher doctorates 2013" /> The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada and was instituted at all British universities from 1917. The first (titled a DPhil) was awarded at the [[University of Oxford]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=it-vAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72|title=A History of Foreign Students in Britain|author=H. Perraton|publisher=Springer|date=17 June 2014|isbn=9781137294951}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Doctoral_Characteristics.pdf|title=Doctoral degree characteristics|page=12|quote=The first Doctor of Philosophy (DPhil) in the UK was awarded by the University of Oxford in 1917|publisher=[[Quality Assurance Agency]]|date=September 2011|access-date=18 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918065438/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Doctoral_Characteristics.pdf|archive-date=18 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Following the MD, the next professional doctorate in the US, the [[Juris Doctor]] (JD), was established by the University of Chicago in 1902. However, it took a long time to be accepted, not replacing the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) until the 1960s, by which time the LLB was generally taken as a graduate degree. Notably, the JD and LLB curriculum were identical, with the degree being renamed as a doctorate, and it (like the MD) was not equivalent to the PhD, raising criticism that it was "not a 'true Doctorate{{'"}}.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jOyVvAPtTcwC&pg=PA20|pages=20–25|title=Comparing American and British Legal Education Systems: Lessons for Commonwealth African Law Schools|publisher=Cambria Press|date=2007|first=Kenneth K.|last=Mwenda|isbn=9781621969594}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mobar.org/uploadedFiles/Home/Publications/Precedent/2013/Winter/doctors.pdf|title=HOW DID LAWYERS BECOME 'DOCTORS'? FROM THE LL.B. TO THE J.D.|first=David|last=Perry|publisher=New York State Bar Association|date=June 2012|work=New York State Bar Association Journal|volume=84|issue=5|access-date=2016-10-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103015051/http://www.mobar.org/uploadedFiles/Home/Publications/Precedent/2013/Winter/doctors.pdf|archive-date=2017-01-03|url-status=live}}</ref> When professional doctorates were established in the UK in the late 1980s and early 1990s, they did not follow the US model. Still, they were set up as research degrees at the same level as PhDs but with some taught components and a professional focus for research work.<ref name=FHEQ/>

Now usually called higher doctorates in the United Kingdom, the older-style doctorates take much longer to complete since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are less common than the PhD in some countries and are often awarded ''[[honoris causa]]''. The [[habilitation]] is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU. It involves either a long new thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The habilitation (highest available degree) demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate supportive funding. The habilitation follows the research doctorate, and in Germany, it can be a requirement for appointment as a ''[[Privatdozent]]'' or professor.