Editing Dream interpretation (section)

==History==
===Early civilizations===
[[File:Tablet V of the Epic of Gligamesh.JPG|thumb|The ancient [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' (''Tablet V pictured'') contains numerous examples of dream interpretation.<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/>]]

The ancient [[Sumer]]ians in [[Mesopotamia]] have left evidence of dream interpretation dating back to at least 3100 BC in Mesopotamia.<ref name="Seligman">Seligman, K. (1948), ''Magic, Supernaturalism and Religion''. New York: Random House</ref><ref name="BlackGreen1992"/> Throughout Mesopotamian history, dreams were always held to be extremely important for [[divination]]<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/><ref name="Oppenheim">Oppenheim, L.A. (1966). ''Mantic Dreams in the Ancient Near East'' in G. E. Von Grunebaum & R. Caillois (Eds.), ''The Dream and Human Societies'' (pp. 341–350). London, England: Cambridge University Press.</ref> and Mesopotamian kings paid close attention to them.<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/><ref name="Seligman"/> [[Gudea]], the king of the Sumerian city-state of [[Lagash]] (reigned {{circa}} 2144–2124 BC), rebuilt the temple of [[Ningirsu]] as the result of a dream in which he was told to do so.<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/> The standard [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' contains numerous accounts of the prophetic power of dreams.<ref name="BlackGreen1992">{{cite book|last1=Black|first1=Jeremy|first2=Anthony|last2=Green|title=Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary|location=Austin, Texas|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=1992|isbn=0714117056|pages=71–72, 89–90}}</ref><ref>Thompson, R. (1930) ''The Epic of Gilgamesh.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>George, A. trans. (2003) The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.</ref> First, [[Gilgamesh]] himself has two dreams foretelling the arrival of [[Enkidu]].<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/> In one of these dreams, Gilgamesh sees an axe fall from the sky. The people gather around it in admiration and worship. Gilgamesh throws the axe in front of his mother [[Ninsun]] and then embraces it like a wife. Ninsun interprets the dream to mean that someone powerful will soon appear. Gilgamesh will struggle with him and try to overpower him, but he will not succeed. Eventually, they will become close friends and accomplish great things. She concludes, "That you embraced him like a wife means he will never forsake you. Thus your dream is solved."<ref>Oppenheim, A. (1956) The interpretation of dreams in the ancient Near East with a translation of an Assyrian dreambook. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,'' 46(3): 179–373. p. 247.</ref> Later in the epic, Enkidu dreams about the heroes' encounter with the giant [[Humbaba]].<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/> Dreams were also sometimes seen as a means of seeing into other worlds<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/> and it was thought that the soul, or some part of it, moved out of the body of the sleeping person and actually visited the places and persons the dreamer saw in his or her sleep.<ref name=":2">Caillois, R. (1966). ''Logical and Philosophical Problems of the Dream''. In G.E. Von Grunebaum & R. Caillos (Eds.), ''The Dream and Human Societies''(pp. 23–52). London, England: Cambridge University Press.</ref> In Tablet VII of the epic, Enkidu recounts to Gilgamesh a dream in which he saw the gods [[Anu]], [[Enlil]], and [[Shamash]] condemn him to death.<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/> He also has a dream in which he visits the [[Kur|Underworld]].<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/>

The [[Assyria]]n king [[Ashurnasirpal II]] (reigned 883–859 BC) built a temple to Mamu, possibly the god of dreams, at [[Imgur-Enlil]], near [[Kalhu]].<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/> The later Assyrian king [[Ashurbanipal]] (reigned 668–{{circa}} 627 BC) had a dream during a desperate military situation in which his divine patron, the goddess [[Inanna|Ishtar]], appeared to him and promised that she would lead him to victory.<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/> The [[Babylonia]]ns and Assyrians divided dreams into "good," which were sent by the gods, and "bad," sent by demons.<ref name="Oppenheim"/> A surviving collection of dream omens entitled ''[[Iškar Zaqīqu]]'' records various dream scenarios as well as [[Prognosis|prognostications]] of what will happen to the person who experiences each dream, apparently based on previous cases.<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/><ref>Nils P. Heessel : ''Divinatorische Texte I : ... oneiromantische Omina''. Harrassowitz Verlag, 2007.</ref> Some list different possible outcomes, based on occasions in which people experienced similar dreams with different results.<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/> Dream scenarios mentioned include a variety of daily work events, journeys to different locations, family matters, [[Human sexual activity|sex act]]s, and encounters with human individuals, animals, and deities.<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/>
[[File:Tissot Joseph Interprets Pharaoh's Dream.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Joseph Interprets Pharaoh's Dream (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by James Tissot)]]

In [[ancient Egypt]], priests acted as dream interpreters. [[Hieroglyph]]ics depicting dreams and their interpretations are evident. Dreams have been held in considerable importance through history by most cultures.

===Classical Antiquity===
The [[ancient Greeks]] constructed temples they called [[Asclepieion]]s, where sick people were sent to be cured. It was believed that cures would be effected through [[divine grace]] by [[incubation (ritual)|incubating dreams]] within the confines of the temple. Dreams were also considered prophetic or [[omen]]s of particular significance. [[Artemidorus]] of Daldis, who lived in the 2nd century AD, wrote a comprehensive text ''[[Oneirocritica]]'' (''The Interpretation of Dreams'').<ref>Artemidorus (1990) The Interpretation of Dreams: Oneirocritica. White, R., trans., Torrance, CA: Original Books, 2nd Edition.</ref> Although Artemidorus believed that dreams can predict the future, he presaged many contemporary approaches to dreams. He thought that the meaning of a dream image could involve puns and could be understood by decoding the image into its component words. For example, Alexander, while waging war against the Tyrians, dreamt that a satyr was dancing on his shield. Artemidorus reports that this dream was interpreted as follows: satyr = ''sa tyros'' ("Tyre will be thine"), predicting that Alexander would be triumphant. Freud acknowledged this example of Artemidorus when he proposed that dreams be interpreted like a rebus.<ref name="Freud, S. 1900">Freud, S. (1900) ''The Interpretation of Dreams.'' New York: Avon, 1980.</ref>

===Middle Ages===
In [[psychology in medieval Islam|medieval Islamic psychology]], certain [[hadith]]s indicate that [[dream]]s consist of three parts, and early [[Ulema|Muslim scholars]] recognized three kinds of dreams: false, pathogenic, and true.<ref name=Amber-376>{{Harv|Haque|2004|p=376}}</ref> [[Ibn Sirin]] (654–728) was renowned for his ''Ta'bir al-Ru'ya'' and ''Muntakhab al-Kalam fi Tabir al-Ahlam'', a book on dreams. The work is divided into 25 sections on dream interpretation, from the etiquette of interpreting dreams to the interpretation of reciting certain [[Sura]]hs of the [[Qur'an]] in one's dream. He writes that it is important for a layperson to seek assistance from an [['alim|alim]] (Muslim scholar) who could guide in the interpretation of dreams with a proper understanding of the cultural context and other such causes and interpretations.<ref name=Amber-375>{{Harv|Haque|2004|p=375}}</ref> [[Al-Kindi]] (Alkindus) (801–873) also wrote a treatise on dream interpretation: ''On Sleep and Dreams''.<ref name=Amber-361>{{Harv|Haque|2004|p=361}}</ref> In [[consciousness]] studies, [[Al-Farabi]] (872–951) wrote the ''On the Cause of Dreams'', which appeared as chapter 24 of his ''Book of Opinions of the people of the Ideal City''. It was a treatise on [[dream]]s, in which he was the first to distinguish between dream interpretation and the nature and causes of dreams.<ref name=Amber-363>{{Harv|Haque|2004|p= 363}}</ref> In ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', [[Avicenna]] extended the theory of [[temperament]]s to encompass "[[emotion]]al aspects, mental capacity, [[moral]] attitudes, [[self-awareness]], movements and [[dream]]s."<ref name=Lutz>{{citation |first=Peter L. |last=Lutz |year=2002 |title=The Rise of Experimental Biology: An Illustrated History |page=60 |publisher=[[Humana Press]] |isbn=0-89603-835-1}}</ref> [[Ibn Khaldun]]'s ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' (1377) states that "confused dreams" are "pictures of the imagination that are stored inside by [[perception]] and to which the ability to think is applied, after (man) has retired from [[sense]] perception."<ref>[[Ibn Khaldun]], [[Franz Rosenthal]], N.J. Dawood (1967), ''The Muqaddimah, trans.'', p. 338, [[Princeton University Press]], {{ISBN|0-691-01754-9}}</ref>

Ibn Shaheen states: "Interpretations change their foundations according to the different conditions of the seer (of the vision), so seeing handcuffs during sleep is disliked but if a righteous person sees them it can mean stopping the hands from evil". Ibn Sirin said about a man who saw himself giving a sermon from the mimbar: "He will achieve authority and if he is not from the people who have any kind of authority it means that he will be crucified".

===China===
A standard traditional Chinese book on dream-interpretation is the ''Lofty Principles of Dream Interpretation'' (夢占逸旨) compiled in the 16th century by Chen Shiyuan (particularly the "Inner Chapters" of that opus).<ref>[http://dreams.00.gs/Wandering_Spirits,_I.1-4.htm ''Lofty Principles of Dream Interpretation'', "Inner Chapters 1–4"]</ref><ref>[http://dreams.00.gs/Wandering_Spirits,_I.5.htm ''Lofty Principles of Dream Interpretation'', "Inner Chapter 5"]</ref><ref>[http://dreams.00.gs/Wandering_Spirits,_I.6-9.htm ''Lofty Principles of Dream Interpretation'', "Inner Chapters 6–9"]</ref><ref>[http://dreams.00.gs/Wandering_Spirits,_I.10.htm ''Lofty Principles of Dream Interpretation'', "Inner Chapter 10"]</ref> Chinese thinkers also raised profound ideas about dream interpretation, such as the question of how we know we are dreaming and how we know we are awake. It is written in the [[Zhuangzi (book)|Chuang-tzu]]: "Once Chuang Chou dreamed that he was a butterfly. He fluttered about happily, quite pleased with the state that he was in, and knew nothing about Chuang Chou. Presently he awoke and found that he was very much Chuang Chou again. Now, did Chou dream that he was a butterfly or was the butterfly now dreaming that he was Chou?"

===Modern Europe===
In the 17th century, the English physician and writer Sir [[Thomas Browne]] wrote a short tract upon the interpretation of dreams. Dream interpretation became an important part of [[psychoanalysis]] at the end of the 19th century with [[Sigmund Freud]]'s seminal work ''[[The Interpretation of Dreams]]'' (''Die Traumdeutung''; literally "dream-interpretation").<ref name="Freud, S. 1900"/>