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ETOPS
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== History == [[File:Lufthansa Boeing 747-8I D-ABYT - 31884065307.jpg|thumb|Airliners with more than two engines were preferred on long-haul operations due to restrictions limiting two-engined aircraft to fly through remote areas.]] In 1936, the predecessor to the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] (FAA), the U.S. [[Bureau of Air Commerce]], restricted commercial operations within United States airspace to within {{cvt|100|miles|abbr=on}} of an adequate airport. For many aircraft of that era this meant about 60 minutes with one engine inoperative.<ref name=AirbusETOPS/>{{rp|p=p.10}} In 1953, with [[Aircraft engine#Reciprocating (piston) engines|piston engine]] reliability and aircraft performance improved, U.S. authorities introduced a "60-minute rule", restricting twin-engine aircraft to a 60-minute diversion area (at single-engine cruise speed). There was some additional flexibility beyond this limit with special approval. Meanwhile, the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) recommended a 90-minute diversion time for all aircraft, which was adopted by many regulatory authorities and airlines outside the US.<ref name=AirbusETOPS/>{{rp|p=p.10}} During the 1950s, [[Pan Am]] twin-engine [[Convair 240]]s flew across the Caribbean from [[Barranquilla, Colombia]] to [[Kingston, Jamaica]], [[Avensa]] [[Convair 340]]s flew from [[Maracaibo, Venezuela]] to [[Montego Bay, Jamaica]], [[KLM]] [[Douglas DC-3]]s flew [[Curacao]] to [[Santo Domingo|Ciudad Trujillo]] while KLM Convairs flew [[Aruba]] to Kingston with [[Delta Air Lines]] operating [[Convair 340]] flights nonstop between [[New Orleans]] and [[Havana]] as well as nonstop between Havana and Montego Bay and also on a routing of Havana – [[Port au Prince]] – Ciudad Trujillo – [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]].{{explain|date=June 2024|reason= what is the point of these examples? were they are simple over-water flights, commonplace all around the world, or were the distances exceptional?}}<ref>[https://www.timetableimages.com/ttimages/complete/dl58/dl58-09.jpg Time Table Images]</ref> In 1948–52 [[New Zealand National Airways Corporation]] scheduled a DC-3 to fly from Apia (Western Samoa) to Aitutaki, a {{frac|5|1|2}}-hour flight covering 685 airportless nautical miles between Tafuna (Pago Pago) and Aitutaki. In 1963 [[Samoa Airways|Polynesian Airlines]] started flying a [[Percival Prince]] Apia to Aitutaki; in 1964 the flight was a DC-3 from Faleolo (Upolu) to Aitutaki, a distance of {{Convert|768|nmi|km mi}}. More recently, the January 1979 OAG showed a weekly Polynesian Airlines [[Hawker Siddeley HS 748|HS748]] from Niue to Rarotonga, {{convert|585|nmi|km mi|abbr=on}} with no airport. In 2017 ICAO issued [[Standards and Recommended Practices]] (SARPS) for ETOPS, and ETOPS were extended to four-engine aircraft like the [[Boeing 747-8]] and the terminology updated to EDTO (Extended Diversion Time Operations).<ref name=Doc10085_EDTO>{{Cite web|url=https://www.icao.int/MID/Documents/2020/EDTO%20Workshop/10085_cons_en.pdf|title =ICAO DOC 10085 }}</ref> === Early jet airliners === While the earliest jet engines were sometimes unreliable, widespread use of later engines such as the [[Pratt & Whitney JT8D]] (e.g. [[McDonnell Douglas DC-9]] and [[Boeing 737]]) led to major advances in reliability and safety. As jet engines started to deliver more power than piston engines while increasing reliability, aircraft whose size previously required four piston engines could now be built using only two jet engines.<ref name=AirbusETOPS/>{{rp|p=p.11}} By the late 1960s, most large civil airliners were jet-powered, relegating the piston engine to roles such as cargo flights. With the JT8D reliably powering the three-engine [[Boeing 727]], the 60-minute rule was waived in 1964 for three-engine aircraft, which in turn opened the way for the development of [[wide-body aircraft|wide-body]], intercontinental [[trijet]]s such as the [[Lockheed L-1011 TriStar]] and [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]]. By then, only twin-engine jets were restricted by the 60-minute rule. Trijets and quadjets dominated international long-haul flights until the late 1980s. === Early ETOPS === [[File:Airbus A300B2-103 - Airbus Industrie.jpg|thumb|The [[Airbus A300B4]] became the first ETOPS-compliant aircraft, in 1977<ref>{{cite web |title=Technology leaders (1977–1979) |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210425203402/www.airbus.com/company/history/aircraft-history/1977-1979.html |work= Aircraft History |publisher=Airbus}}</ref>]] [[Airbus A300]] twinjets, the first twin-engine wide-body aircraft, had been flying across the North Atlantic, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean under a 90-minute ICAO rule since 1976.<ref name=AirbusETOPS/>{{rp|p=p.14}} When the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] director [[J. Lynn Helms]] in 1980 was approached about the possibility of an exemption, his response was "It'll be a cold day in hell before I let twins fly long haul, overwater routes."<ref name="TTT767">{{cite web|title=The Boeing 767 and the Birth of ETOPS|url=http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/12/the-boeing-767-and-birth-of-etops.html|website=Tails though Time|access-date=17 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811070418/http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/12/the-boeing-767-and-birth-of-etops.html|archive-date=August 11, 2017}}</ref><ref name=JALC2013>{{cite journal|last1=DeSantis|first1=J. Angelo|title=Engines Turn or Passengers Swim: A Case Study of How ETOPS Improved Safety and Economics in Aviation|journal=[[Journal of Air Law & Commerce]]|volume=77 |issue=2013 |page=20 |url=http://scholar.smu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1305&context=jalc |year=2013}}</ref> The [[Boeing 767-200ER]] entered service in 1984. In 1985, the FAA increased the ETOPS to 120 minutes at the single-engine cruise speed.<ref name=AirbusETOPS/>{{rp|p=p.12}} [[Trans World Airlines]] operated the first 120-minute ETOPS (ETOPS-120) service on February 1, 1985, with a [[Boeing 767]]-200 from Boston to Paris. The 767 burned {{cvt|7,000|lb|t}} less fuel per hour than a [[Lockheed L-1011 TriStar]] on the same route, prompting TWA to spend $2.6 million on each 767 they owned to retrofit them to ETOPS-120 specs.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.gcmap.com/featured/20200201 |title= Featured Map: First ETOPS-120 Revenue Flight |date= 1 February 2020 |author= Karl L. Swartz |website= The Great Circle Mapper }}</ref> It was followed by [[Singapore Airlines]] in June with an [[Airbus A310]]. In April 1986, [[Pan Am]] inaugurated transatlantic revenue service using A310s, and within five years Airbus ETOPS operators numbered more than 20.<ref name=AirbusETOPS/>{{rp|p=p.14}} === ETOPS 180 === [[File:Air Canada Boeing 767-300ER with CF6-80 engines.jpg|thumb|Twin-engine [[Boeing 767-300ER]] over Alaska beginning an ETOPS 180 trans-Pacific crossing]] In 1988, the FAA amended the ETOPS regulation to allow the extension to a 180-minute diversion period, subject to stringent technical and operational qualifications. ETOPS-180 and ETOPS-207 cover about 95% of the Earth.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=V_NRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA203 |title= Initial Airworthiness: Determining the Acceptability of New Airborne Systems |author= Guy Gratton |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]|date= 17 March 2018 |isbn= 9783319756172 }}</ref> The first such flight was conducted in 1989. This set of regulations was subsequently adopted by the JAA, ICAO, and other regulatory bodies. === ETOPS 180 at introduction === [[File:Boeing 777 in then-Boeing livery K58552.jpg|thumb|The [[Boeing 777]] was the first ETOPS 180 airliner at its introduction]] The original 1985 regulations allowed an airliner to have ETOPS-120 rating on entry into service. ETOPS-180 was only possible after one year of trouble-free 120-minute ETOPS experience. In 1990 Boeing convinced the FAA that it could deliver an airliner with ETOPS-180 on its entry into service. This process was called Early ETOPS. The Boeing 777 was the first aircraft to be introduced with an ETOPS rating of 180 minutes. In the 1990s, the [[Joint Aviation Authorities]] (JAA) demurred, and the [[Boeing 777]] was rated ETOPS-120 on its entry into service in Europe. European airlines operating the 777 had to demonstrate one year of trouble-free 120-minute ETOPS experience before obtaining 180-minute ETOPS for the 777. === Beyond ETOPS-180 === Effective February 15, 2007, the FAA ruled that US-registered twin-engine airplane operators can fly more than 180-minute ETOPS to the design limit of the aircraft. In November 2009, the [[Airbus A330]] became the first aircraft to receive ETOPS-240 approval, which has since been offered by Airbus as an option.<ref>{{Cite press release |url= http://www.airbus.com/presscentre/pressreleases/press-release-detail/detail/a330-is-first-airliner-to-be-certified-for-etops-beyond-180-minutes/ |title= A330 is first airliner to be certified for ETOPS 'beyond 180 minutes' |publisher= [[Airbus]] |date=12 November 2009 |access-date= 2 July 2011}}</ref> ETOPS-240 and beyond are now permitted<ref>{{cite web |title= Extended Operations (ETOPS and Polar Operations) |date= July 13, 2008 |publisher= [[Federal Aviation Administration]] |url= http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/2e0f31985abd83ef8625746b0057fd06/$FILE/AC%20120-42B.pdf |access-date= October 5, 2008 |archive-date= February 9, 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170209162626/http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/2e0f31985abd83ef8625746b0057fd06/$FILE/AC |url-status= dead }}</ref> on a case-by-case basis, with regulatory bodies in the United States, Australia, and New Zealand adopting said regulatory extension. Authority is only granted to operators of two-engine airplanes between specific city pairs. The certificate holder must have been operating at 180-minute or greater ETOPS authority for at least 24 consecutive months, of which at least 12 consecutive months must be at 240-minute ETOPS authority with the airplane-engine combination in the application. [[File:Vietnam Airlines, Boeing 787-9, VN-A861.jpg|thumb|Certified with ETOPS-330, the [[Boeing 787 Dreamliner]] has become a popular utility on transocean routes.]] On December 12, 2011, Boeing received type-design approval from the FAA for up to 330-minute extended operations for its [[Boeing 777]] series, all equipped with [[General Electric|GE]] engines, and with [[Rolls-Royce Holdings|Rolls-Royce]] and [[Pratt & Whitney]] engines expected to follow.<ref>{{cite press release |title= Boeing to Offer up to 330-Minute ETOPS on 777 |date= Dec 12, 2011 |publisher= [[Boeing]] |url= http://boeing.mediaroom.com/2011-12-12-Boeing-to-Offer-up-to-330-Minute-ETOPS-on-777}}</ref> The first ETOPS-330 flight took place on December 1, 2015, with [[Air New Zealand]] connecting [[Auckland Airport|Auckland]] to [[Ministro Pistarini International Airport|Buenos Aires]] on a 777-200ER.<ref>{{cite press release |title= Boeing, Air New Zealand Celebrate First Flight Approved for 330-Minute ETOPS |date= December 1, 2015 |publisher= [[Boeing]] |url= http://boeing.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=20295&item=129580}}</ref> On May 28, 2014, the [[Boeing 787]] received its ETOPS-330 certificate from the FAA, enabling [[LAN Airlines]] (now known as LATAM Airlines) to switch to the 787 from the A340 on their Santiago–Auckland–Sydney service a year later.<ref>{{Cite press release |url= http://boeing.mediaroom.com/2014-05-28-Boeing-Receives-330-Minute-ETOPS-Certification-for-787s |title= Boeing Receives 330-Minute ETOPS Certification for 787s |publisher= [[Boeing]] |date=28 May 2014}}</ref> Until the rule change in North America and Oceania, several commercial airline routes were still economically off-limits to twinjets because of ETOPS regulations, unless the route was specifically conducted as indivertible. There were routes traversing the Southern hemisphere, e.g., South Pacific (e.g., [[Sydney Airport|Sydney]]–[[Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport|Santiago]], one of the longest over-the-sea distances flown by a commercial airline), South Atlantic (e.g., [[FAOR|Johannesburg]]–[[SBGR|São Paulo]]), Southern Indian Ocean (e.g., [[Perth Airport|Perth]]–[[OR Tambo International Airport|Johannesburg]]), and [[Antarctica]]. [[File:Airbus A350 (28227541585).jpg|thumb|The [[Airbus A350]] is approved with ETOPS-370, which means that it can make a theoretically-safe 6-hour diversion with a single engine operable.]] Before the introduction of the Airbus [[Airbus A350 XWB|A350 XWB]] in 2014, regulations in North America and Europe permitted up to 180-minute ETOPS at entry. The A350 XWB was first to receive an ETOPS-370 prior to entry into service by European authorities.<ref name=Airbus15Oct2014>{{cite press release |url= http://www.airbus.com/newsevents/news-events-single/detail/easa-certifies-a350-xwb-for-up-to-370-minute-etops/ |title=EASA certifies A350 XWB for up to 370 minute ETOPS |publisher= [[Airbus]] |date= 15 Oct 2014}}</ref> The A350 XWB's current ETOPS certification covers 99.7% of the Earth's entire surface, allowing [[point-to-point transit|point-to-point travel]] anywhere in the world except directly over the [[South Pole]].{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} Meanwhile, the first time that ETOPS-330 approval was given to a four-engine aircraft was in February 2015, to the [[Boeing 747-8|Boeing 747-8 Intercontinental]].<ref>{{cite press release |title= Boeing 747-8 Intercontinental Receives FAA Approval for 330-Minute ETOPS |date= March 18, 2015 |publisher= [[Boeing]] |url= http://boeing.mediaroom.com/2015-03-18-Boeing-747-8-Intercontinental-Receives-FAA-Approval-for-330-Minute-ETOPS}}</ref> It is the only ETOPS-compliant aircraft allowed to [[Polar route|run non-stop overflights over Antarctica with proper alternates]], alongside the [[Airbus A340]] and A380.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}
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