Editing Embalming (section)

==History==
[[File: KV54-Pottery-Dishes-OtherItems MetropolitanMuseum.png|thumb|Pottery, dishes, and other miscellaneous items from the embalming cache of [[Tutankhamun]]]]
While the term ''embalming'' is used for both ancient and modern methods of preserving a deceased person, there is very little connection between the modern-day practices of embalming and ancient methods in terms of techniques or final aesthetic results.<ref name="Brenner-2014" />

The [[Chinchorro mummies|Chinchorro culture]] in the [[Atacama Desert|Atacama desert]] of present-day [[Chile]] and [[Peru]] is among the earliest cultures known to have performed artificial mummification, as early as 5000⁠–⁠6000 BCE.<ref name="Brenner-2014">{{cite journal|last=Brenner|first=Erich|title=Human body preservation – old and new techniques|journal=Journal of Anatomy|date=January 2014|pages=316–344|doi=10.1111/joa.12160|volume=224|issue=3|pmid=24438435|pmc=3931544}}</ref> The earliest known evidence of artificial preservation in Europe was found in [[Osorno la Mayor|Osorno]] (Spain) – approximately 5000-year-old human bones covered in [[cinnabar]] for preservation – however embalming remained unusual in Europe up to the time of the Roman Empire.<ref name=" Brenner-2014" />

Evidence of embalming practices in [[Egypt]] date to at least 3500 BCE.<ref>{{cite news |first=Mindy |last=Seisberger |date=16 August 2016 |title=This ancient mummy is older than the pharaohs |website=Live Science |url=https://www.livescience.com/63351-mummy-older-than-pharaohs.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Maya |last=Wei-Haas |date=15 August 2018 |title=Mummy yields earliest known Egyptian embalming recipe |website=National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/08/news-egyptian-prehistoric-mummy-embalming-recipe/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816012653/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/08/news-egyptian-prehistoric-mummy-embalming-recipe/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 16, 2018}}</ref> Ritual mummification, including embalming, continued to develop into a standardized practice in the [[Dynasties of Ancient Egypt|dynastic period]], and typically involved removing organs, ridding the body of moisture, and covering the body with [[natron]], a mixture of desiccating salts found naturally in the [[Wadi El Natrun]] west of the [[Nile Delta]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/nmnh/mummies.htm|title=Encyclopedia Smithsonian: Egyptian Mummies|website=si.edu|access-date=2017-02-02}}</ref> The ancient Egyptians believed that mummification enabled the soul to return to the preserved corpse after death. Other cultures known to have used embalming techniques in antiquity include the [[Meroe|Meroites]], [[Guanches]], [[Peruvians]], [[Jivaro people|Jivaro]] Indians, [[Aztec]]s, [[Toltec]]s, [[Mayans]], and [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] and southern [[Nigerian]] tribes.<ref name="Brenner-2014" />

In China, artificially preserved remains have been recovered from the period of the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE–220 CE), the main examples being those of [[Xin Zhui]] and the [[Mawangdui|Mawangdui Han tombs site]]. While these remains have been extraordinarily well preserved, the embalming fluids and methods used are unknown.<ref name="Brenner-2014" />

In Europe the ancient practice of artificial preservation had become widespread by about 500 CE. The period of the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]] is known as the anatomists' period of embalming and is characterized by an increased influence of scientific developments in medicine and the need for bodies for dissection purposes. Early methods used are documented by contemporary physicians such as Peter Forestus (1522–1597) and [[Ambroise Pare]] (1510–1590). The first attempts to inject the vascular system were made by [[Alessandra Giliani]], who died in 1326. Various attempts and procedures have been reported by [[Leonardo da Vinci]] (1452–1519), Jacobus Berengar (1470–1550), [[Eustachius, Bartolomeo|Bartholomeo Eustachius]] (1520–1574), [[Reinier de Graaf]] (1641–1673), [[Jan Swammerdam]] (1637–1680), and [[Frederik Ruysch]] (1638–1731).<ref name="Brenner-2014" />

===Modern methods===
[[File:William Hunter (anatomist).jpg|thumb|[[William Hunter (anatomist)|William Hunter]] developed and popularized the modern technique of arterial embalming in the late 18th century.<ref name="Britain1878">{{cite book|author=Royal Society of Arts (Great Britain)|title=Journal of the Royal Society of Arts ...|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hhQp_nYR48wC&pg=PA914|year=1878|publisher=Royal Society of Arts|pages=914–}}</ref>]]

The modern method of embalming involves the injection of various chemical solutions into the arterial network of the body to primarily disinfect and slow the decomposition process. [[William Harvey]], the 17th century English physician who was the first to detail the system of [[blood circulation]], made his discoveries by injecting colored solutions into corpses.<ref name=":1" />

The Scottish surgeon [[William Hunter (anatomist)|William Hunter]] was the first to apply these methods to the art of embalming as part of mortuary practice.<ref name=":1" /> He wrote a widely read report on the appropriate methods for arterial and cavity embalming in order to preserve bodies for burial.<ref name=":2" /> His brother, [[John Hunter (surgeon)|John Hunter]], applied these methods and advertised his embalming services to the general public from the mid-18th century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=A Journey of Cadaveric Preservation from Ancient Cultures to Modern Period |url=https://www.rfppl.co.in/subscription/upload_pdf/52-56-1726218269.pdf}}</ref>

One of his more notorious clients was dentist [[Martin Van Butchell]]. When his wife Mary died on 14 January 1775, he had her embalmed as an attraction to draw more customers.<ref name=":2" /> Hunter injected the body with preservatives and color additives that gave a glow to the corpse's cheeks, replaced her eyes with [[glass eye]]s, and dressed her in a fine lace dress. The body was embedded in a layer of [[plaster of Paris]] in a glass-topped coffin.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LT28AAAAIAAJ|title=Murdering to Dissect: Grave-robbing, Frankenstein, and the Anatomy Literature|author=Tim Marshall|year=1995|publisher=Manchester University Press|page=79|isbn=9780719045431}}</ref> Butchell exhibited the body in the window of his home and many Londoners came to see it; however, Butchell drew criticism for the display. A rumor, possibly started by Butchell himself, claimed that his wife's [[marriage certificate]] had specified that her husband would only have control over her estate after her death for as long as her body was kept unburied.<ref name="years">{{cite journal|date=November 1999|title=Martin Van Butchell (1735–1814): the eccentric, "kook" dentist of old London.|journal=History of Dentistry|volume=47|issue=3|pages=99–104|pmid=10726564|last1=Christen|first1=AG|last2=Christen|first2=JA}}</ref>

Interest in, and demand for, embalming grew steadily in the 19th century largely for sentimental reasons. People sometimes wished to be buried at far-off locations, which became possible with the advent of the railways, and mourners wanted the chance to pay their last respects beside the displayed body. Other motives behind embalming were prevention of disease and the wish to prepare funerals and burials, which were becoming more elaborate, without undue haste. After [[Lord Nelson]] was killed in the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], his body was preserved in brandy and spirits of wine mixed with camphor and myrrh for over two months. At the time of his state funeral in 1805, his body was found to still be in excellent condition and completely plastic.<ref name="Beatty 1807 72–73">{{cite book|last=Beatty|first=William|title=Authentic narrative of the death of lord Nelson|year=1807|pages=72–73|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15233}}</ref>

[[File:Embalming fluid.jpg|thumb|left|Embalming fluids used in the early 20th century]]
Alternative methods of preservation, such as ice packing or laying the body on so called 'cooling boards', gradually lost ground to the increasingly popular and effective methods of embalming. By the mid-19th century, the newly emerging profession of [[funeral director|businessmen-undertakers]] – who provided funeral and burial services – began adopting embalming methods as standard.<ref name=":2" />

Embalming became more common in the United States during the [[American Civil War]], when servicemen often died far from home. The wish of families for their remains to be returned home for local burial and lengthy transport from the battlefield helped it become popular.<ref name="Problem of Embalming">{{cite journal |last1=Chiappelli |first1=Jermiah |date=December 2008 |title=Drinking Grandma: The Problem of Embalming |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26327817 |journal=Journal of Environmental Health |volume=71 |issue=5 |pages=24–29 |jstor=26327817 |pmid=19115720 }}</ref>

The period from about 1861 is sometimes known as the funeral period of embalming and is marked by a separation of the fields of embalming by undertakers and embalming (anatomical wetting) for medical and scientific purposes.<ref name="Brenner-2014" /> Dr [[Thomas Holmes (mortician)|Thomas Holmes]] received a commission from the [[Army Medical Corps]] to embalm the corpses of dead [[Union army|Union officers]] to return to their families. Military authorities also permitted private embalmers to work in military-controlled areas. The passage of [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s body home for burial was made possible by embalming, and it brought wider public attention to the possibilities and potential of embalming.<ref name="Problem of Embalming" />

Until the early 20th century, embalming fluids often contained [[arsenic]] until it was supplanted by more effective and less toxic chemicals.<ref name="Brenner-2014" /> There was concern about the possibility of arsenic from embalmed bodies contaminating ground water supplies, as well as legal concerns that people suspected of murder by arsenic poisoning might claim that levels of poison in the deceased's body were the result of post-mortem embalming, not [[homicide]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Richardson |first1=Patrick |last2=Tillewein |first2=Heather |last3=Antonangelo |first3=Joao |last4=Frederick |first4=Daniel |date=2024-02-26 |title=The Impact on Environmental Health from Cemetery Waste in Middle Tennessee |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=267 |doi=10.3390/ijerph21030267 |doi-access=free |issn=1661-7827 |pmid=38541269|pmc=10970330 }}</ref>

In 1855, the Russian chemist [[Alexander Butlerov|Alexander Michailowitsch Butlerow]] discovered [[formaldehyde]], the preservative properties of which were soon noted, and it became the foundation for modern methods of embalming.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Salthammer |first1=Tunga |last2=Mentese |first2=Sibel |last3=Marutzky |first3=Rainer |date=2010-04-14 |title=Formaldehyde in the Indoor Environment |journal=Chemical Reviews |volume=110 |issue=4 |pages=2536–2572 |doi=10.1021/cr800399g |issn=0009-2665 |pmc=2855181 |pmid=20067232}}</ref>

Dr Frederic Ruysch was the first to have used the arterial injection method for embalming. His work of embalming was so nearly perfect that people thought the dead body was actually alive; however, he only used it to prepare specimens for his anatomical work.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Champion Text Book on Embalming|url=https://archive.org/details/championtextbo00myer|last=Myers|first=Eliab|publisher=Champion Chemical Co.|year=1897|location=Springfield, Ohio|pages=[https://archive.org/details/championtextbo00myer/page/102 102]}}</ref>

===Present day===
Modern embalming is most often performed to ensure a better presentation of the deceased for [[viewing (funeral)|viewing]] by friends and relatives. It is also used for medical research or training.

A successful viewing of the body is considered to be helpful in the [[grieving]] process.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Steele |first=Donald |date= |title=The Value of Viewing the Body |url=http://www.amsocembalmers.org/docs/viewing.pdf |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006054927/http://www.amsocembalmers.org/docs/viewing.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2008 |access-date=8 December 2008 |website=amsocembalmers.org}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Embalming has the potential to prevent mourners from having to deal with the rotting and eventual putrescence of the corpse.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Metcalf |first1=Peter |title=Celebrations of Death: The Anthropology of Mortuary Ritual |last2=Huntington |first2=Richard |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1991 |isbn=9780511803178 |edition=2nd |location=Cambridge}}</ref> Despite a common misconception, embalming is not mandatory in the United States,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mikkelson |first=Barbara |date=June 9, 1999 |title=Have People Been Buried Alive? |url=https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/just-dying-to-get-out/ |website=[[Snopes]]}}</ref><ref name="Problem of Embalming" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Slominski |first=Elena |date=August 29, 2023 |title=Life of the death system: shifting regimes, evolving practices, and the rise of eco-funerals |journal=Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=7 |doi=10.1080/15487733.2023.2243779 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023SSPP...1943779S }}</ref> although it is a general legal requirement for international repatriation of human remains to the U.S. (exceptions do occur).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Returning the Remains of a Deceased U.S. Citizen to the United States |url=https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/international-travel/while-abroad/death-abroad1/return-of-remains-of-deceased-us-citizen.html |access-date=7 September 2024 |website=travel.state.gov}}</ref>

There are no universal international preservation requirements for repatriation of human remains, but requirements for embalming do exist for a variety of countries depending on locality and circumstance.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 April 2020 |title=Guidance Information on the Transport of COVID-19 Human Remains by Air: Collaborative document by WHO, CDC, IATA and ICAO |url=https://www.iata.org/contentassets/8aa8928c553042bf99a5014d8ac25c8f/guidance-document-transport-of-covid-19-human-remains.pdf |access-date=7 September 2024 |website=IATA}}</ref> Some international standards do exist however, such as the Strasbourg Agreement of the Council of Europe, agreed to by more than 20 States in Europe, which only requires embalming in cases where the individual died due to an infectious disease.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 October 1973 |title=Agreement on the Transfer of Corpses, Strasbourg, 26.X.1973 |url=https://rm.coe.int/168007617d |access-date=7 September 2024 |website=Council of Europe / Conseil de l'Europe}}</ref>

===Jessica Mitford and the revisionist position===

The beneficial perception of the viewing of a properly embalmed deceased person has been challenged by authors such as [[Jessica Mitford]], who points out that there is no general consensus that viewing an embalmed corpse is somehow "therapeutic" to the bereaved, and that terms such as "memory picture" were invented by the undertakers themselves, who would have a financial interest in selling the process of embalming to the public. Mitford also points out that, in many countries, embalming is rare, and the populace of such countries are still able to grieve normally.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enotes.com/american-way-death-revisited-salem/american-way-death-revisited |title=The American Way of Death Revisited Summary – Jessica Mitford – Magill Book Reviews |publisher=Enotes.com |access-date=9 March 2012}}</ref>