Editing Espionage (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of espionage}}

=== Ancient world ===
Espionage has been recognized as of importance in military affairs since ancient times.

The oldest known classified document was a report made by a spy disguised as a [[Envoy (title)|diplomatic envoy]] in the court of [[King Hammurabi]], who died in around 1750 BC. The [[ancient Egypt]]ians had a developed secret service, and espionage is mentioned in the ''[[Iliad]]'', the [[Bible]], and the [[Amarna letters]].<ref name="foo">{{cite web |title=Espionage Facts |url=https://www.spymuseum.org/education-programs/spy-resources/espionage-facts/ |website=International Spy Museum |access-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> Espionage was also prevalent in the [[Greco-Roman world]], when spies employed illiterate subjects in [[civil service]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Richmond |first=J. A. |date=1998 |title=Spies in Ancient Greece |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/643204 |journal=Greece & Rome |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1093/gr/45.1.1 |jstor=643204 |issn=0017-3835|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ñaco del Hoyo |first=Toni |date=November 2014 |title=Roman and Pontic Intelligence Strategies: Politics and War in the Time of Mithradates VI |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26098615 |journal=War in History |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=401–421 |doi=10.1177/0968344513505528 |jstor=26098615 |s2cid=220652440 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ehoward |date=2006-06-12 |title=Espionage in Ancient Rome |url=https://www.historynet.com/espionage-in-ancient-rome/ |access-date=2023-12-21 |website=HistoryNet |language=en-US}}</ref>

The thesis that espionage and intelligence has a central role in [[war]] as well as [[peace]] was first advanced in ''[[The Art of War]]'' and in the ''[[Arthashastra]]''. "The Art of War," identifies five types of spies that are essential for gathering intelligence and achieving victory: ''local spies'' (citizen [[informants]] within the enemy's territory), ''inward spies'' (recruited [[double agent]]s within the enemy ranks), converted spies (recruited [[Defection|defectors]] converted to serve your side), doomed spies (expendable [[Fabricator (intelligence)|fabricators]] used to spread disinformation; acts as decoy for counter-intelligence), and surviving spies (spies that provide accurate intelligence after gathering information from the enemy).

=== Middle Ages ===
In the [[Middle Ages]] European states excelled at what has later been termed counter-[[subversion]] when Catholic [[inquisition]]s were staged to annihilate [[heresy]]. Inquisitions were marked by centrally organised mass [[interrogation]]s and detailed record keeping. Western espionage changed fundamentally during the Renaissance when Italian [[city-state]]s installed resident [[ambassador]]s in [[capital cities]] to collect intelligence.

=== The Renaissance ===
Renaissance [[Venice]] became so obsessed with espionage that the [[Council of Ten]], which was nominally responsible for [[security]], did not even allow the [[Doge (title)|doge]] to consult government [[archive]]s freely. In 1481 the Council of Ten barred all Venetian government officials from making contact with ambassadors or foreigners. Those revealing [[official secret]]s could face the [[Capital punishment|death penalty]]. Venice became obsessed with espionage because successful [[international trade]] demanded that the city-state could protect its [[trade secret]]s.

Under Queen [[Elizabeth I]] of England ({{reign | 1558 | 1603}}), [[Francis Walsingham]] ({{circa}} 1532–1590) was appointed foreign secretary and intelligence chief.<ref>{{Cite book | last= Andrew | first= Christopher | title= The Secret World: A History of Intelligence | date= 28 June 2018 | publisher= Penguin Books Limited | isbn= 9780241305225}}</ref> The novelist and journalist [[Daniel Defoe]] (died 1731) not only spied for the British government, but also developed a theory of espionage foreshadowing modern [[police-state]] methods.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Ulfkotte
 |first1               = Udo
 |author-link1         = Udo Ulfkotte
 |year                 = 1997
 |title                = Verschlusssache BND
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=V_oEAQAAIAAJ
 |language             = de
 |edition              = 2
 |location             = Munich
 |publisher            = Koehler & Amelang
 |page                 = 38
 |isbn                 = 9783733802141
 |access-date          = 6 January 2023
 |quote                = Ein neuer Typ des Spions War Daniel Defoe (1650–1731), der Autor des weltberühmten Romans "Robinson Crusoe" ... Zudem verfaßte Defoe eine Theorie der Spionage, in der er der Regierung die Spitzelmethoden des Polizeistaates empfahl.
}}
</ref>

=== United States ===
During the [[American Revolution]], [[Nathan Hale]] and [[Benedict Arnold]] achieved their fame as spies, and there was considerable use of [[American Civil War spies|spies on both sides during the American Civil War]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Allen|first=Thomas|title=Intelligence in the Civil War|url=https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/civilwar.pdf|access-date=September 3, 2021|publisher=Intelligence Resource Program, Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> Though not a spy himself, [[George Washington]] was America's first [[wiktionary:spymaster|spymaster]], utilizing espionage tactics against the British.<ref name="foo" />

=== World War I, World War II ===
In the 20th century, at the height of [[World War I]], all [[great power]]s except the [[United States]] had elaborate civilian espionage systems, and all national military establishments had intelligence units. In order to protect the country against foreign agents, the [[U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Espionage Act of 1917]]. [[Mata Hari]], who obtained information for Germany by seducing French officials, was the most noted espionage agent of World War I. Prior to [[World War II]], [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] and [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]] established elaborate espionage nets. In 1942 the [[Office of Strategic Services]] was founded by Gen. [[William J. Donovan]]. However, the British [[Special Operations Executive]] was the keystone of Allied intelligence. Numerous resistance groups such as the Austrian [[Heinrich Maier|Maier]]-Messner Group, the [[French Resistance]], the [[Witte Brigade]], [[Milorg]] and the Polish [[Home Army]] worked against Nazi Germany and provided the Allied secret services with information that was very important for the war effort.

=== Cold War ===
Since the end of [[World War II]], the activity of espionage has enlarged, much of it growing out of the [[Cold War]] between the United States and the [[Former Soviet Union|former USSR]]. The [[Russian Empire]] and its successor, the [[Soviet Union]], have had a long tradition of espionage ranging from the [[Okhrana]] to the [[KGB]] (Committee for State Security), which also acted as a secret police force. In the United States, the 1947 National Security Act created the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to coordinate intelligence and the National Security Agency for research into codes and electronic communication. In addition to these, the United States has 13 other intelligence gathering agencies; most of the U.S. expenditures for intelligence gathering are budgeted to various Defense Dept. agencies and their programs. Under the intelligence reorganization of 2004, the director of national intelligence is responsible for overseeing and coordinating the activities and budgets of the U.S. intelligence agencies.

In the [[Cold War]], espionage cases included [[Alger Hiss]], [[Whittaker Chambers]] and the Rosenberg Case. In 1952 the Communist Chinese captured two CIA agents and in 1960 [[Francis Gary Powers]], [[1960 U-2 incident|flying a U-2 reconnaissance mission]] over the Soviet Union for the CIA, was shot down and captured. During the Cold War, many Soviet intelligence officials defected to the West, including Gen. [[Walter Krivitsky]], [[Victor Kravchenko (defector)|Victor Kravchenko]], [[Vladimir Petrov (diplomat)|Vladimir Petrov]], Peter Deriabin, Pawel Monat and [[Oleg Penkovsky]] of the [[GRU (Soviet Union)|GRU]]. Among Western officials who defected to the Soviet Union are [[Guy Burgess]] and [[Donald Maclean (spy)|Donald D. Maclean]] of Great Britain in 1951, [[Otto John]] of West Germany in 1954, [[William Hamilton Martin|William H. Martin]] and [[Bernon F. Mitchell]], U.S. cryptographers, in 1960, and Harold (Kim) Philby of Great Britain in 1962. U.S. acknowledgment of its U-2 flights and the exchange of Francis Gary Powers for [[Rudolf Abel]] in 1962 implied the legitimacy of some espionage as an arm of foreign policy.

[[China]] has a very cost-effective intelligence program that is especially effective in monitoring neighboring countries such as [[Mongolia]], [[Russia]] and [[India]]. Smaller countries can also mount effective and focused espionage efforts. For instance, the [[Communist Party of Vietnam|Vietnamese communists]] had consistently superior intelligence during the [[Vietnam War]]. Some Islamic countries, including [[Libya]], [[Iran]] and [[Syria]], have highly developed operations as well. [[SAVAK]], the secret police of the [[Pahlavi dynasty]], was particularly feared by Iranian dissidents before the 1979 [[Iranian Revolution]].