Editing Extrasensory perception (section)

==History==
[[File:Cartas Zener.svg|thumb|[[Zener cards]] were first used in the 1930s for experimental research into ESP.]]
[[File:Hubert Pearce with J. B. Rhine.png|thumb|[[Hubert Pearce]] with [[Joseph Banks Rhine|J. B. Rhine]]]]
In the 1930s, at [[Duke University]] in North Carolina, [[Joseph Banks Rhine|J. B. Rhine]] and his wife [[Louisa E. Rhine]] conducted an investigation into extrasensory perception. While Louisa Rhine concentrated on collecting accounts of spontaneous cases, J. B. Rhine worked largely in the laboratory, carefully defining terms such as ESP and ''psi'' and designing experiments to test them. A simple set of black and white cards was developed, originally called [[Zener card]]s<ref>{{cite book  | editor =Donald Laycock  | editor-link =Donald Laycock  |editor2=David Vernon  |editor2-link=David Vernon (writer)  |editor3=Colin Groves |editor3-link=Colin Groves |editor4=Simon Brown |editor4-link=Simon Brown (author) | title = Skeptical – a Handbook of Pseudoscience and the Paranormal| publisher = Canberra Skeptics| location = Canberra, Australia| isbn = 978-0-7316-5794-0| page = 28| year = 1989}}</ref> – now called ESP cards. They bear the symbols circle, square, wavy lines, cross, and star. There are five of each type of card in a pack of 25.

In a telepathy experiment, the "sender" looks at a series of cards while the "receiver" guesses the symbols. To try to observe clairvoyance, the pack of cards is hidden from everyone while the receiver guesses. To try to observe precognition, the order of the cards is determined after the guesses are made. Later he used dice to test for [[psychokinesis]].<ref>Sladek, John. (1974). ''The New Apocrypha: A Guide to Strange Sciences and Occult Beliefs''. Panther. pp. 172–174. {{ISBN|0-87281-712-1}}</ref><ref>Hansel, C. E. M. (1980). ''ESP and Parapsychology: A Critical Re-evaluation''. Prometheus Books. pp. 86–122. {{ISBN|978-0879751203}}</ref>

The parapsychology experiments at Duke evoked criticism from academics and others who challenged the concepts and evidence of ESP. A number of psychological departments attempted, unsuccessfully, to repeat Rhine's experiments. W. S. Cox (1936) from [[Princeton University]] with 132 subjects produced 25,064 trials in a playing card ESP experiment. Cox concluded "There is no evidence of extrasensory perception either in the 'average man' or of the group investigated or in any particular individual of that group. The discrepancy between these results and those obtained by Rhine is due either to uncontrollable factors in experimental procedure or to the difference in the subjects."<ref>Cox, W. S. (1936). ''An experiment in ESP''. Journal of Experimental Psychology 12: 437.</ref> Four other psychological departments failed to replicate Rhine's results.<ref>Cited in [[C. E. M. Hansel]] ''The Search for a Demonstration of ESP'' in [[Paul Kurtz]]. (1985). ''A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology''. Prometheus Books. pp. 105–127. {{ISBN|0-87975-300-5}}
*Adam, E. T. (1938). ''A summary of some negative experiments''. Journal of Parapsychology 2: 232–236.
*Crumbaugh, J. C. (1938). ''An experimental study of extra-sensory perception''. Masters thesis. Southern Methodist University.
*Heinlein, C. P; Heinlein, J. H. (1938). ''Critique of the premises of statistical methodology of parapsychology''. Journal of Parapsychology 5: 135–148.
*Willoughby, R. R. (1938). ''Further card-guessing experiments''. Journal of Psychology 18: 3–13.</ref>

In 1938, the psychologist [[Joseph Jastrow]] wrote that much of the evidence for extrasensory perception collected by Rhine and other parapsychologists was anecdotal, biased, dubious and the result of "faulty observation and familiar human frailties".<ref>[[Joseph Jastrow]]. (1938). ''ESP, House of Cards''. The American Scholar 8: 13–22.</ref> Rhine's experiments were discredited due to the discovery that [[sensory leakage]] or cheating could account for all his results such as the subject being able to read the symbols from the back of the cards and being able to see and hear the experimenter to note subtle clues.<ref>[[Harold Gulliksen]]. (1938). ''Extra-Sensory Perception: What Is It?''. American Journal of Sociology. Vol. 43, No. 4. pp. 623–634. "Investigating Rhine's methods, we find that his mathematical methods are wrong and that the effect of this error would in some cases be negligible and in others very marked. We find that many of his experiments were set up in a manner which would tend to increase, instead of to diminish, the possibility of systematic clerical errors; and lastly, that the ESP cards can be read from the back."</ref><ref>Wynn, Charles M; Wiggins, Arthur W. (2001). ''Quantum Leaps in the Wrong Direction: Where Real Science Ends...and Pseudoscience Begins''. Joseph Henry Press. p. 156. {{ISBN|978-0-309-07309-7}} "In 1940, Rhine coauthored a book, ''Extrasensory Perception After Sixty Years'' in which he suggested that something more than mere guess work was involved in his experiments. He was right! It is now known that the experiments conducted in his laboratory contained serious methodological flaws. Tests often took place with minimal or no screening between the subject and the person administering the test. Subjects could see the backs of cards that were later discovered to be so cheaply printed that a faint outline of the symbol could be seen. Furthermore, in face-to-face tests, subjects could see card faces reflected in the tester’s eyeglasses or cornea. They were even able to (consciously or unconsciously) pick up clues from the tester’s facial expression and voice inflection. In addition, an observant subject could identify the cards by certain irregularities like warped edges, spots on the backs, or design imperfections."</ref><ref>[[Terence Hines|Hines, Terence]]. (2003). ''Pseudoscience and the Paranormal''. Prometheus Books. p. 122. {{ISBN|1-57392-979-4}} "The procedural errors in the Rhine experiments have been extremely damaging to his claims to have demonstrated the existence of ESP. Equally damaging has been the fact that the results have not replicated when the experiments have been conducted in other laboratories."</ref><ref>Smith, Jonathan C. (2009). [https://books.google.com/books?id=sJgONrua8IkC&dq=rhine+pseudoscience&pg=PT226 ''Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal: A Critical Thinker's Toolkit'']. Wiley-Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-1405181228}}. "Today, researchers discount the first decade of Rhine's work with Zener cards. Stimulus leakage or cheating could account for all his findings. Slight indentations on the backs of cards revealed the symbols embossed on card faces. Subjects could see and hear the experimenter, and note subtle but revealing facial expressions or changes in breathing."</ref>

In the 1960s, parapsychologists became increasingly interested in the cognitive components of ESP, the subjective experience involved in making ESP responses, and the role of ESP in psychological life. This called for experimental procedures that were not limited to Rhine's favored forced-choice methodology. Such procedures have included [[dream telepathy]] experiments, and the [[ganzfeld experiment]]s (a mild sensory deprivation procedure).<ref>Marks, David; Kammann, Richard. (2000). ''The Psychology of the Psychic''. Prometheus Books. pp. 97–106. {{ISBN|1-57392-798-8}}</ref><ref>Hyman, Ray. ''Evaluating Parapsychological Claims''. In Robert J. Sternberg, Henry L. Roediger, Diane F. Halpern. (2007). ''Critical Thinking in Psychology''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 216–231. {{ISBN|978-0521608343}}</ref><ref>Alcock, James. (2003). ''Give the Null Hypothesis a Chance: Reasons to Remain Doubtful about the Existence of Psi''. Journal of Consciousness Studies 10: 29–50.</ref>

Second sight may have originally been so called because normal vision was regarded as coming first, while supernormal vision is a secondary thing, confined to certain individuals.<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Second Sight |volume=24 |page=570}}</ref> ''An dà shealladh'' or "the two sights", meaning "the sight of the seer", is the way [[Gaels]] refer to "second sight", the involuntary ability of seeing the future or distant events. There are many Gaelic words for the various aspects of second sight, but ''an dà shealladh'' is the one mostly recognized by non-Gaelic speakers, even though, strictly speaking, it does not really mean second sight, but rather "two sights".{{efn|"The term ''da-shealladh'' (pronounced "dah-haloo"), often translated as "second sight", literally means "two sights". It refers to the ability to see apparitions of both the living and the dead. The taibshear (pronounced "tysher") is the seer who specializes in observing the energy double (''taibhs''). A dream or vision is a ''bruadar'' ("broo-e-tar"). The bruadaraiche ("broo-e-taracher") is more than a dreamer in the common sense; he or she is the kind of dreamer who can see into the past or the future."<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.beliefnet.com/columnists/dreamgates/2011/02/scottish-dreaming-an-ancestral-call.html# |author= Moss, Robert |date= 2015 |title= Scottish dreaming: an ancestral call |publisher= Beliefnet, Inc. |access-date= March 27, 2016}}</ref>}}