Editing First Battle of Bull Run (section)

==Background==

===Military and political situation===
{{main|Manassas Campaign}}
{{further|Origins of the American Civil War|Battle of Fort Sumter|Western Virginia Campaign|Border states (American Civil War)|President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers|Eastern Theater of the American Civil War|American Civil War}}
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!bgcolor="#b0c4de"|Opposing political leaders
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|<gallery mode="packed" heights="160" style="text-align:center; margin: 0px;">
File:Abraham Lincoln O-77 matte collodion print.jpg|Pres.<br />[[Abraham Lincoln]],<br />'''USA'''
File:Jefferson Davis 1862.jpg|Pres.<br />[[Jefferson Davis]],<br />'''CSA'''
</gallery>
|}On December 20, 1860, [[South Carolina in the American Civil War|South Carolina]] was the first of seven Southern States to declare [[secession]] from the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] of the United States.<ref>Long, pp. 12–13.</ref> By February 1, 1861, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas passed ordinances of secession,<ref> in that order. Long, pp. 23–31.</ref> The Constitution of the [[Confederate States of America]] was adopted in [[Montgomery, Alabama]] on February 8, 1861.<ref>Long, p. 33.</ref> On March 1, 1861, [[Confederate States Army]] forces assumed control of the military situation at [[Charleston in the American Civil War|Charleston, South Carolina]] from state forces.<ref>Long. p. 43.</ref> On April 12, 1861, open warfare between the Confederate States and the United States began when Confederate forces barraged [[Fort Sumter]] in [[Charleston Harbor]], which had been occupied by the United States Army since December 26, 1860.<ref>Long, pp. 56–57.</ref> On April 15, 1861 (two days after the Federal Army forces surrendered at Fort Sumter, one day after the formal surrender), [[President of the United States|President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]] issued a proclamation declaring an insurrection against the laws of the United States had taken place.<ref>Long, p. 59.</ref>

[[File:Winfield Scott by Fredricks, 1862.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Lt. Gen. [[Winfield Scott]], General in Chief, '''USA''']]
[[File:Scott-anaconda.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Cartoon map illustrating Gen. Winfield Scott's plan to crush the Confederacy economically. It is often called the "[[Anaconda Plan]]".]]
To suppress the insurrection of the Confederate States and restore federal law in the Southern States, Lincoln called for [[President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers|75,000 volunteers]] with ninety-day enlistments to augment the existing U.S. Army of about 15,000 present for duty.<ref>Long, pp. 59, 706.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/civil_war/LincolnEmergencySession_FeaturedDoc.htm |title=U.S. Senate: The Civil War: The Senate's Story |website=Senate.gov |access-date=October 2, 2020 |archive-date=October 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013071401/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/civil_war/LincolnEmergencySession_FeaturedDoc.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> He later accepted an additional 40,000 volunteers with three-year enlistments and increased the strength of the U.S. Army to 156,861, further enlarged to 183,588 present for duty on July 1.<ref>Long, p. 69, 706.</ref> Lincoln's actions caused four more Southern states, including Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee, to adopt ordinances of secession and join the Confederate States of America.<ref>Long, pp. 60, 70, 76.</ref> On May 29, 1861, with the arrival in [[Richmond in the American Civil War|Richmond, Virginia]] of Confederate President [[Jefferson Davis]], the Confederate States capital had been moved from Montgomery to Richmond.<ref>Long, p. 79.</ref>

In [[Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War|Washington, D.C.]], many of the regiments of volunteers raised by States under Lincoln's call rushed to defend the capital. General in Chief Lt. Gen. [[Winfield Scott]] laid out his strategy to subdue the Confederate States on May 3, 1861.<ref>Long, pp. 69–70.</ref> He proposed that an army of 80,000 men be organized to sail down the [[Mississippi River in the American Civil War|Mississippi River]] and capture [[New Orleans in the American Civil War|New Orleans]]. While the Army "strangled" the Confederacy in the west, the U.S. Navy would blockade Southern ports along the eastern and Gulf coasts. The press ridiculed what they dubbed as Scott's "[[Anaconda Plan]]". Instead, many believed the capture of the Confederate capital at Richmond, only {{convert|100|mi|km}} south of Washington, would quickly end the war.<ref>Ballard, 3.</ref><ref>Long, pp. 94–95.</ref> By July 1861 many of the thousands of Union volunteers were camped in and around Washington. Since General Scott was seventy-five years old and physically unable to lead this force against the Confederates, the administration searched for a more suitable field commander.<ref name=b4>Ballard, p. 4.</ref>

===Irvin McDowell===
Secretary of the Treasury [[Salmon P. Chase]] championed fellow Ohioan, 42-year-old Maj. [[Irvin McDowell]]. Although McDowell was a [[United States Military Academy|West Point]] graduate, his command experience was limited. In fact, he had spent most of his career engaged in various staff duties in the Adjutant General's Office. While stationed in Washington he had become acquainted with Chase, a former Ohio governor and senator. Now, through Chase's influence, McDowell was promoted three grades to brigadier general in the Regular Army and on 27 May was assigned command (by [[President of the United States|President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]]) of the Department of Northeastern Virginia, which included the military forces in and around Washington.<ref name=b4/> McDowell immediately began organizing what became known as the [[Army of the Potomac|Army of Northeastern Virginia]], 35,000 men arranged in five divisions. Under public and political pressure to begin offensive operations, McDowell was given very little time to train the newly inducted troops. Units were instructed in the maneuvering of regiments, but they received little or no training at the brigade or division level. He was reassured by President Lincoln, "You are green, it is true, but they are green also; you are all green alike."<ref>Detzer, p. 77; Williams, p. 21; McPherson, p. 336; Davis, p. 110, attributes the remark to general-in-chief [[Winfield Scott]].</ref> Against his better judgment, McDowell commenced campaigning.

===Intelligence===
During the previous year, U.S. Army captain [[Thomas Jordan (general)|Thomas Jordan]] set up a pro-Southern spy network in [[Washington, D.C.]], recruiting [[Rose O'Neal Greenhow]], a prominent socialite with a wide range of contacts.<ref name="fishel">Fishel, Edwin C., ''The Secret War For The Union: The Untold Story of Military Intelligence in the Civil War'', Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996, pp. 59–63</ref> He provided her with a code for messages.<ref name="bioArc">[https://arcweb.archives.gov/arc/action/AdvancedSearchForm "Greenhow, Rose O'Neal"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120211241/https://arcweb.archives.gov/arc/action/AdvancedSearchForm |date=January 20, 2016 }}, (1817–1864), ''The National Archives – People Description''. 1817–1864, (accessed February 5, 2013)</ref> After he left to join the Confederate Army, he gave her control of his network but continued to receive reports from her.<ref name="fishel"/> On July 9 and 16, Greenhow passed secret messages to Confederate General [[P.G.T. Beauregard]] containing critical information regarding military movements for what would be the First Battle of Bull Run, including the plans of Union general McDowell.<ref name="bioArc"/><ref>[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2706/ "Letter Written in Cipher on Mourning Paper by Rose Greenhow"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605154449/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2706/ |date=June 5, 2013 }}, National Archives and Records Administration, World Digital Library</ref>

=== McDowell's plan and initial movements in the Manassas Campaign ===
On July 16, McDowell departed Washington with the largest field army yet gathered on the [[North America]]n continent, about 35,000 men (28,452 effectives).<ref name=strength>Strength figures vary by source. Eicher, pp. 87–88: 35,000 Union, 32,000 Confederate; Esposito, map 19: 35,000 Union, 29,000 Confederate; [http://www.history.army.mil/StaffRide/1st%20Bull%20Run/Organization.htm Ballard] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090101155707/http://www.history.army.mil/StaffRide/1st%20Bull%20Run/Organization.htm |date=January 1, 2009 }}, 35,000 Union (18,000 engaged), 34,000 Confederate (18,000 engaged); Salmon, p. 20: 28,450 Union, 32,230 Confederate; Kennedy, p. 14: 35,000 Union, 33,000 Confederate; Livermore, p. 77: 28,452 Union "effectives", 32,323 Confederate engaged. Writing in ''[[The Century Magazine]]'', adjutant generals [[James Barnet Fry|James B. Fry]] [http://www.rugreview.com/cw/cwcu.htm cites] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509094034/http://www.rugreview.com/cw/cwcu.htm |date=May 9, 2008 }} 18,572 Union men (including stragglers not on the field) and 24 guns engaged, [[Thomas Jordan (general)|Thomas Jordan]] [http://www.rugreview.com/cw/cwcc.htm cites] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090829111849/http://www.rugreview.com/cw/cwcc.htm |date=August 29, 2009 }} 18,052 Confederate men and 37 guns engaged.</ref> McDowell's plan was to move westward in three columns and make a diversionary attack on the Confederate line at [[Bull Run Creek (Virginia)|Bull Run]] with two columns, while the third column moved around the Confederates' right flank to the south, cutting the railroad to [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] and threatening the rear of the Confederate army. He assumed that the Confederates would be forced to abandon Manassas Junction and fall back to the [[Rappahannock River]], the next defensible line in Virginia, which would relieve some of the pressure on the U.S. capital.<ref>Davis, pp. 110–111.</ref> McDowell had hoped to have his army at Centreville by 17 July, but the troops, unaccustomed to marching, moved in starts and stops. Along the route soldiers often broke ranks to wander off to pick apples or blackberries or to get water, regardless of the orders of their officers to remain in ranks.<ref>Ballard, p. 8.</ref>

The [[Confederate Army of the Potomac]] (21,883 effectives)<ref name=Livermore>Livermore, p. 77.</ref> under Beauregard was encamped near Manassas Junction where he prepared a defensive position along the south bank of the Bull Run river with his left guarding a stone bridge, approximately 25 miles (40&nbsp;km) from the United States capital.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.army.mil/html/books/035/35-2-1/cmhPub_35-2-1.pdf |title=Battle of First Bull Run : Staff Ride Guide |author=Ted Ballard |website=History.army.mil |access-date=March 1, 2022 |archive-date=March 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324055443/https://history.army.mil/html/books/035/35-2-1/cmhPub_35-2-1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> McDowell planned to attack this numerically inferior enemy army. Union [[Major general (United States)|Maj. Gen.]] [[Robert Patterson]]'s 18,000 men engaged Johnston's force (the [[Confederate Army of the Shenandoah|Army of the Shenandoah]] at 8,884 effectives, augmented by Maj. Gen. [[Theophilus H. Holmes]]'s [[brigade]] of 1,465<ref name=Livermore />) in the [[Shenandoah Valley]], preventing them from reinforcing Beauregard.
[[File:Battle of Bull Run.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Movements July 16–21, 1861]]
[[File:First Bull Run (Manassas) July 18.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Situation July 18]]
[[File:ATLAS OR BATTLEFIELD MANASSAS.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Battlefield of Manassas]]

After two days of marching slowly in the sweltering heat, the Union army was allowed to rest in [[Centreville, Virginia|Centreville]]. McDowell reduced the size of his army to approximately 31,000 by dispatching Brig. Gen. [[Theodore Runyon]] with 5,000 troops to protect the army's rear. In the meantime, McDowell searched for a way to [[flanking maneuver|outflank]] Beauregard, who had drawn up his lines along Bull Run. On July 18, the Union commander sent a [[division (military)|division]] under Brig. Gen. [[Daniel Tyler]] to pass on the Confederate right (southeast) flank. Tyler was drawn into a [[Battle of Blackburn's Ford|skirmish at Blackburn's Ford]] over Bull Run and made no headway. Also on the morning of 18 July Johnston had received a telegram suggesting he go to Beauregard's assistance if possible. Johnston marched out of Winchester about noon, while Stuart's cavalry screened the movement from Patterson. Patterson was completely deceived. One hour after Johnston's departure Patterson telegraphed Washington, "I have succeeded, in accordance with the wishes of the General-in-Chief, in keeping General Johnston's force at Winchester."<ref>Ballard, p. 9.</ref>

For the maneuver to be successful McDowell felt he needed to act quickly. He had already begun to hear rumors that Johnston had slipped out of the valley and was headed for Manassas Junction. If the rumors were true, McDowell might soon be facing 34,000 Confederates instead
of 22,000. Another reason for quick action was McDowell's concern that the ninety-day enlistments of many of his regiments were about to expire. "In a few days I will lose many thousands of the best of this force", he wrote Washington on the eve of battle. In fact, the next morning two units of McDowell's command, their enlistments expiring that day, would turn
a deaf ear to McDowell's appeal to stay a few days longer. Instead, to the sounds of battle, they would march back to Washington to be mustered out of service.<ref>Ballard, p. 10.</ref>

Becoming more frustrated, McDowell resolved to attack the Confederate left (northwest) flank instead. He planned to attack with Brig. Gen. [[Daniel Tyler]]'s division at the [[Stone Bridge (Manassas)|Stone Bridge]] on the [[U.S. Route 29|Warrenton Turnpike]] and send the divisions of Brig. Gens. [[David Hunter]] and [[Samuel P. Heintzelman]] over Sudley Springs Ford. From here, these divisions could outflank the Confederate line and march into the Confederate rear. The brigade of [[Colonel (United States)|Col.]] [[Israel B. Richardson]] (Tyler's Division) would harass the enemy at Blackburn's Ford, preventing them from thwarting the main attack. Patterson would tie down Johnston in the Shenandoah Valley so that reinforcements could not reach the area. Although McDowell had arrived at a theoretically sound plan, it had a number of flaws: it was one that required synchronized execution of troop movements and attacks, skills that had not been developed in the nascent army; it relied on actions by Patterson that he had already failed to take; finally, McDowell had delayed long enough that Johnston's Valley force, which had trained under [[Stonewall Jackson]], was able to board trains at [[Delaplane, Virginia|Piedmont Station]] and rush to Manassas Junction to reinforce Beauregard's men.<ref>Eicher, pp. 91–100.</ref>

===Prelude to battle===
On July 19–20, significant reinforcements bolstered the Confederate lines behind Bull Run. Johnston arrived with all of his army except for the troops of Brig. Gen. [[Edmund Kirby Smith|Kirby Smith]], who were still in transit. Most of the new arrivals were posted in the vicinity of Blackburn's Ford, and Beauregard's plan was to attack from there to the north toward Centreville. Johnston, the senior officer, approved the plan. If both of the armies had been able to execute their plans simultaneously, it would have resulted in a mutual counterclockwise movement as they attacked each other's left flank.<ref>Eicher, p. 92.</ref>

McDowell was getting contradictory information from his intelligence agents, so he called for the balloon [[Enterprise (balloon)|''Enterprise'']], which was being demonstrated by Prof. [[Thaddeus S. C. Lowe]] in Washington, to perform aerial reconnaissance.