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First Special Service Force
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==Origins and development== ===Background=== [[Geoffrey Pyke]] was an English [[journalist]], [[educationalist]], and later an [[inventor]] whose clever, but [[wikt:unorthodox|unorthodox]], ideas could be difficult to implement. In lifestyle and appearance, he fit the common [[stereotype]] of a scientist-engineer-inventor: in British slang, a "[[boffin]]". This was part of the British approach to encouraging innovative warfare methods and weapons during World War II, which was personally backed by Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]]. [[Hobart's Funnies]] are another example. While working for the British [[Combined Operations|Combined Operations Command]], Pyke devised a plan for the creation of a small, elite force capable of fighting behind enemy lines in [[Arctic warfare|winter conditions]]. This was to have been a [[commando]] unit that could be landed, by sea or air, in occupied [[Norway]], Romania, or the [[Italian Alps]] for sabotage missions against [[hydroelectric plant]]s and [[oil field]]s. In Norway, the chief industrial threat was the production of the [[heavy water]] used in the German atomic weapon research at [[Rjukan]]. Furthermore, attacks on 14 designated Norwegian hydroelectrical power stations, those which would be vulnerable to special force snow vehicles, which supplied the country with 49% of its total power, might drive the Axis powers out of the country and give the Allies a direct link to the USSR.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nadler|first=John|title=A Perfect Hell|year=2005|publisher=Anchor Canada|location=Canada|isbn=978-0-385-66141-6|page=28}}</ref> In Romania, there were the strategically important [[Ploiești]] oil fields that met one quarter of German consumption, and Italian hydroelectric plants powered most of south German industry. Pyke requested that a tracked vehicle be developed especially for the Norwegian operations, capable of carrying men and their equipment at high speed across snow-covered terrain.<ref name=werner>{{cite book | last = Werner | first = Bret |author2=Michael Welply | title = First Special Service Force 1942–44 | publisher=Osprey Publishing | year = 2006 | isbn = 1-84176-968-1}}</ref> ===Project Plough=== In March 1942 Pyke proposed Project Plough to [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Louis Mountbatten]], Chief of Combined Operations Headquarters. Pyke suggested that Allied commandos be parachuted into the Norwegian mountains to establish a covert base on the [[Jostedalsbreen]], a large [[glacier]] plateau in German-occupied Norway, for guerrilla actions against the German army of occupation. Equipped with Pyke's proposed snow vehicle, they would attack strategic targets, such as 14 important hydroelectric power plants. Pyke persuaded Mountbatten that such a force would be virtually invulnerable in its glacier strongholds and would tie down large numbers of German troops trying to dislodge it.<ref name=perutz>{{cite book | last = Perutz | first = Max F. | author-link = Max Perutz | title = I Wish I'd Made You Angry Earlier: Essays on Science, Scientists, and Humanity | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | year = 2002 | pages = 86–87 |isbn=978-0-19-859027-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GkODMkCWndQC}}</ref> However, given the demands upon both Combined Operations and British industry, Britain instead offered Plough to the United States at the Chequers Conference of March 1942. General [[George Marshall]], [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army]], accepted Plough. In April 1942, since no suitable vehicle existed, the US government asked automobile manufacturers to look into such a design. With input from an international team that included Canadian inventor [[George Klein (inventor)|George J. Klein]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eggleston |first=Wilfred |title=Scientists at War |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1950 |isbn=978-1014267153 |edition=first |location=London/Toronto/New York |publication-date=1950 |pages=99 |language=English}}</ref> [[Studebaker]] subsequently created the T-15 cargo carrier, which later became the [[M29 Weasel]].<ref name=werner/> In May 1942, Plough was reviewed by Major [[Robert T. Frederick]], a young officer in the Operations Division of the U.S. General Staff. Frederick predicted Plough would be a military fiasco. Firstly, he argued that Plough called for unrealistic objectives with the number of troops allocated. Similarly, he argued that the small, elite unit would be outnumbered and overwhelmed trying to hold a captured area.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|last=Kemp|first=Ted|title=A Commemorative History: First Special Service Force|year=1995|publisher=Taylor Publishing|location=Dallas|page=1}}</ref> Furthermore, Frederick concluded that there was no definite way to evacuate the troops after a mission. Withdrawal would require significant troop lift and covering fighter support. All vehicles and equipment would have to be abandoned. Finally, Plough had called for troops to be parachuted on their targets, which Frederick said was impossible at the moment because there were no planes to fly the men into Norway. Additionally, significant aircraft would be necessary to drop the Weasels and resupply the force. Ultimately, he concluded that a small unit of elite men would not do enough damage to justify the risk of putting them into battle.<ref name="nadler31">{{cite book|last=Nadler|first=John|title=A Perfect Hell|year=2005|publisher=Anchor Canada|location=Canada|page=31}}</ref> He instead proposed a series of strategic bombings to achieve the plan's objectives.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> Generals Marshall and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] had already discussed Plough with the British high command and were unwilling to give up a chance to open an American front in Europe. It was believed that Plough offered the possibility of defeating the Germans, and the Americans wanted Allied efforts to shift to the Pacific Theater. The sooner the Germans were defeated, it was argued, the sooner this would become a reality.<ref name="nadler31"/> The first officer picked to lead the unit, Lieutenant Colonel [[Howard R. Johnson]], did not get along well with Pyke. Johnson was transferred after arguing with Mountbatten and Eisenhower about the feasibility of the plan.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nadler|first=John|title=A Perfect Hell|year=2005|publisher=Anchor Canada|location=Canada|page=33}}</ref> (Johnson went on to form and command the [[501st Infantry Regiment (United States)|501st Parachute Infantry Regiment]].) He was replaced by Frederick, following a suggestion by Mountbatten, which was approved by Eisenhower. Frederick was given the task of creating a fighting unit for Plough and was promoted to colonel to command it. By July 1942 Frederick had eased Pyke out of the picture. The First Special Service Force (FSSF) was activated on 9 July 1942 as a joint Canadian-U.S. force of three small regiments and a service battalion, directly answerable to the joint Chiefs of Staff. US Army [[Fort William Henry Harrison]] in [[Helena, Montana]], was chosen as the primary training location, due to its flat terrain for [[Airborne forces|airborne]] training and its close proximity to mountains for ski and winter training.<ref name=werner/> Frederick had very high priority in obtaining equipment and training areas. Originally, due to its winter warfare mission, it had been intended that the FSSF should be equally made up of American, Canadian, and Norwegian troops. However, a lack of suitable Norwegians saw this changed to half American and half Canadian.<ref name=adelman>{{cite book | last = Adelman | first = Robert H. |author2=George Walton | title = The Devil's Brigade | publisher=[[United States Naval Institute#Publications and products|Naval Institute Press]] | year = 2004 | isbn = 1-59114-004-8}}</ref> === Canadian recruitment === In July 1942, the [[Canadian Minister of National Defence]], [[James Ralston]], approved the assignment of 697 officers and enlisted men for Plough, under the guise that they were forming Canada's first airborne unit, the [[1st Canadian Parachute Battalion]] (1CPB). Due to a decision to raise an actual Canadian parachute battalion, the Canadian volunteers for Plough were also sometimes known unofficially as the "2nd Canadian Parachute Battalion". (The Canadians did not officially become a unit until April–May 1943, under the designation, 1st Canadian Special Service Battalion.) While its members remained part of the Canadian Army, subject to its code of discipline and paid by the Canadian government, they were to be supplied with uniforms, equipment, food, shelter and travel expenses by the US Army. It was agreed that a Canadian would serve as second in command of the force and that half of the officers and initially one-half of the enlisted men would be Canadian. This resulted in a total force of 1,800 men: 900 US soldiers and 900 Canadian soldiers.<ref>United States House of Representatives. [https://www.house.gov/feature-stories/2015-2-6-1st-special-service-force-honored "1st Special Service Force Honored"]</ref> As casualties depleted the Force, restrictions on the availability of Canadian replacements reduced the proportion of the Canadian contingent to about one-third of the total. After Lieutenant Colonel McQueen, the senior Canadian member, broke his leg during parachute training, the highest ranking Canadian in the force was Lieutenant Colonel Don Williamson, who commanded the 2nd Regiment.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nadler|first=John|title=A Perfect Hell|year=2005|publisher=Anchor Canada|location=Canada|page=58}}</ref> === US recruitment === The US volunteers for the force consisted initially of officers from [[Fort Belvoir|Forts Belvoir]] and [[Fort Benning|Benning]]. Letters of recruitment were posted to all US Army units in the Southwest and on the Pacific coast. The letters called for single men, aged 21–35 with three or more years of [[grammar school]]. Occupations preferred: Rangers, lumberjacks, north woodsmen, hunters, prospectors, explorers, and game wardens. Married men were not accepted for the Force. Inspection teams also scoured the western camps for ideal candidates. Those chosen, due to the secrecy of the mission, were often told that they had been selected to undergo training for a parachute unit. Indeed, the unit was so secretive, that many soldiers did not know where they were when they arrived in Helena for training, as the windows of the trains carrying the troops were painted black.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kemp|first=Ted|title=A Commemorative History: First Special Service Force|year=1995|publisher=Taylor Publishing|location=Dallas|page=3}}</ref> The combat force was to be made up of three regiments. Each regiment was led by a lieutenant colonel and 32 officers and had 385 men. The regiments were divided into two battalions with three companies in each battalion and three platoons in each company. Each platoon had two sections.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite book|last=Kemp|first=Ted|title=A Commemorative History: First Special Service Force|year=1995|publisher=Taylor Publishing|location=Dallas|page=2}}</ref> Following initial training period in Montana, the FSSF relocated to Camp Bradford, Virginia, on 15 April 1943, and to [[Fort Ethan Allen]], Vermont, on 23 May 1943. === Training and equipment === Because the unit needed to be trained quickly, the soldiers began parachuting within 48 hours of their arrival in Helena, Montana. The camp had no training towers and preliminary flights were not carried out, so for many this was their first experience at jumping. This training was completed before any other because it was believed that if all the soldiers earned their jumping badges simultaneously a sense of camaraderie would develop within the camp. The men were on a strict and physically demanding three phase training schedule: 1) From August to October: parachuting, weapons, and demolitions usage, small unit tactics and physical training. 2) From October to November: unit tactics and problem solving. 3) From November to July: [[skiing]], [[rock climbing]], adaptation to cold climates and operation of the [[M29 Weasel]]. The training schedule started with [[reveille]] at 04:30 from Monday to Saturday followed by breakfast at 06:30. The obstacle course was run by 08:00 four times a week, followed by the day's training, which differed depending on the month. Soldiers were expected to march double time between training exercises to adhere to the strict schedule. Training lectures were given by veterans of overseas wars in the evenings from Monday to Friday. Soldiers were given Saturday evenings and Sundays off. Most of the men went into Helena to relax on their days off. Marches were done on a {{convert|60|mi|adj=on}} course. The course record was set by the 1st Regiment of Colonel A. C. Marshall, which completed it in twenty hours. The FSSF trained with enemy weapons, taking them apart, reassembling and shooting them until they were as proficient with them as with their own.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kemp|first=Ted|title=A Commemorative History: First Special Service Force|year=1995|publisher=Taylor Publishing|location=Dallas|page=4}}</ref> The hand-to-hand combat instructor was Dermot (Pat) O'Neill, an ex-[[Shanghai Municipal Police|Shanghai International Police Officer]], who was an expert at unarmed combat. O'Neill, who was well-versed in several forms of martial arts, taught the men to attack the eyes, throat, groin, and knees. He also taught knife fighting tactics and showed the men how to quick-draw their pistols. The men attacked one another with unsheathed [[bayonet]]s as part of the training exercises and injuries were common.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nadler|first=John|title=A Perfect Hell|year=2005|publisher=Anchor Canada|location=Canada|page=67}}</ref> Ski training, taught by Norwegian instructors, began in December. The men received lectures and demonstrations on skiing techniques and most had mastered the basics in two weeks. At this point the men were made to ski cross-country in formation from dawn until dusk with all of their equipment until they were up to Norwegian army standards.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kemp|first=Ted|title=A Commemorative History: First Special Service Force|year=1995|publisher=Taylor Publishing|location=Dallas|page=7}}</ref> As a [[light infantry]] unit destined for [[mountain warfare]] or [[winter warfare]], the FSSF was issued various items of non-standard clothing, equipment and rations, including skis, [[parka]]s, [[haversack]]s and the [[mountain ration]]s. From the outset, the FSSF was armed with a variety of non-standard or limited-issue weapons, such as the [[M1941 Johnson light machine gun]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Major Sam |last=Pikula |title=The Armalite AR-10 |year=1998 |publisher=Regnum Fund Press |isbn=9986-494-38-9}}</ref> The Johnson light machine gun in particular helped greatly increase the firepower of the FSSF and was highly regarded by those who used it in combat. The men were also trained meticulously in the assembly and operation of German weapons in the event that it became necessary to utilize captured German machine guns on the battlefield. This training would later prove to be of crucial importance at Monte Majo. Frederick's staff even considered arming the men with blow darts, but it was decided against on the grounds that it may have been considered a war crime.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nadler|first=John|title=A Perfect Hell|year=2005|publisher=Anchor Canada|location=Canada|page=66}}</ref> Frederick himself participated in the design of a fighting knife made exclusively for the FSSF called the [[V-42 combat knife]], a derivative of the [[Fairbairn–Sykes fighting knife]]. ===Name, insignia and uniforms=== Legend has it that while carrying out beachhead operations at [[Anzio]], a member of the FSSF found the journal of a German lieutenant from the [[Hermann Goering Division]]. The journal contained the following entry: "The Black Devils are all around us every time we come into the line. We never hear them come." This legend was never verified as fact by any member of the FSSF; however, the FSSF was known as the Black Devils and as the Devil's Brigade. The members of the FSSF preferred the latter. General Frederick had cards printed up with the FSSF insignia and the words {{lang|de|Das dicke Ende kommt noch!}} or "The worst is yet to come" printed in red ink down the right side<ref>{{cite book|last=Kemp|first=Ted|title=A Commemorative History: First Special Service Force|year=1995|publisher=Taylor Publishing|location=Dallas|page=31}}</ref> to be left on the bodies of dead Germans as a form of psychological warfare.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nadler|first=John|title=A Perfect Hell|year=2005|publisher=Anchor Canada|location=Canada|page=207}}</ref> This was so effective that Sergeant Victor Kaisner reported hearing a German soldier whisper {{lang|de|"Schwarzer Teufel"}} ("Black Devil") as the German's throat was being sliced on the beachhead.<ref name="nadler203">{{cite book|last=Nadler|first=John|title=A Perfect Hell|year=2005|publisher=Anchor Canada|location=Canada|page=203}}</ref> However, recent historiography surrounding the FSSF debates whether or not Frederick and his general staff made up the nickname in order to instill fear in the enemy.<ref name="nadler203"/> The FSSF was unofficially first known as the "Braves". Their spearhead shoulder insignia was chosen with this name in mind.<ref name="autogenerated2"/> The formation patch was a red spearhead with the words USA written horizontally and CANADA written vertically. The branch of service insignia was the crossed arrows formerly worn by the [[United States Army Indian Scouts]]. The FSSF wore red, white, and blue piping on their [[garrison cap]]s, and on the breast an oval (or trimming) behind their [[Parachutist Badge (United States)#Army|Parachutist Wings]]. Members of the FSSF also wore a red, white, and blue [[fourragère]], [[lanyard]], or shoulder cord made out of [[parachute]] suspension lines. American members of the FSSF arrived for training in Helena in standard U.S. Army attire: green twill coveralls, some wearing khaki pants and fatigue hats. Others were dressed in trousers and green uniform jackets and wore green caps. Ultimately, however, the American uniforms did not differ widely from one another. The Canadian troops, however, arrived in all different manners of uniform: some wore [[kilts]], others tartan trousers ([[trews]]), and others Bermuda shorts. Headgear differed just as widely, depending on where the soldier was from – wedge caps for some, black berets for troops taken from armoured regiments and large khaki [[Tam o' Shanter (cap)|Tam o' Shanter]]s for soldiers from Scottish regiments. Under the Williamson-Wickham agreement, Canadian soldiers were issued and wore American uniforms. Eventually, it was decided that the uniforms would come from an American supplier and olive drab trousers and blouses were issued. Two uniform elements differentiated an American from a Canadian: the collar insignia had either "U.S." or "Canada" above the crossed arrows; and Americans wore American metal ID tags and Canadians wore Canadian ID discs. Frederick instructed Major Orville Baldwin to develop a unique fourragère (also known as an aiguillette or lanyard) for all members of the unit, thereby replacing the regimental fourragère worn by the Canadian soldiers. The result was a braided fourragère made with red, white and blue parachute cord. For mountain warfare, the men were given baggy ski pants, parkas, and a helmet. Standard boots were originally the same as those issued to parachuting regiments, but these were replaced with infantry combat boots in Italy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kemp|first=Ted|title=A Commemorative History: First Special Service Force|year=1995|publisher=Taylor Publishing|location=Dallas|page=64}}</ref> Colonel Frederick worried from the outset that the soldiers from both countries would have trouble forming a cohesive unit. On a base level, the techniques and commands used by either army were confusing to the other. Commands for marching, for example, had to be homogenized in order for the unit to operate in the field effectively. In order to satisfy the men from both countries, compromises were made. Canadian bagpipers were put into American unit marching bands to play "[[Reveille]]" every morning. The marching styles and commands of the American and Canadian armies were mixed and uniforms were made identical.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nadler|first=John|title=A Perfect Hell|year=2005|publisher=Anchor Canada|location=Canada|page=73}}</ref> In the end, Frederick's fears were unfounded as the men bonded through training and dedication to the force.<ref>{{cite book|last=Peppard|first=Herb|title=The Lighthearted Soldier|year=1994|publisher=Nimbus Publishing|location=Halifax|page=32}}</ref>
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