Editing Franz Josef Land (section)

==History==
{{main|History of Franz Josef Land}}
[[File:Die Gartenlaube (1875) b 593.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|left|Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition]]

There are two candidates for the discovery of Franz Josef Land. The first was the Norwegian sealing vessel ''Spidsbergen'', with captain [[Nils Fredrik Rønnbeck]] and harpooner Johan Petter Aidijärvi. They sailed northeast from [[Svalbard]] in 1865 searching for suitable sealing sites, and they found land that was most likely Franz Josef Land. The account is believed to be factual, but an announcement of the discovery was never made, and their sighting therefore remained unknown to subsequent explorers. It was at the time common to keep newly discovered areas secret, as their discovery was aimed at exploiting them for sealing and whaling, and exposure would cause competitors to flock to the site.<ref>Barr (1995): 59 * {{cite book |last=Barr |first=Susan |title=Franz Josef Land |publisher=[[Norwegian Polar Institute]] |location=Oslo |year=1995 |isbn=82-7666-095-9}}
</ref> Russian scientist N. G. Schilling proposed in 1865 that the ice conditions in the Barents Sea could only be explained if there was another land mass in the area, but he never received funding for an expedition.<ref>Barr (1995): 129</ref>

The [[Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition]] of 1872–74 was the first to announce the discovery of the islands. Led by [[Julius von Payer]] and [[Karl Weyprecht]] of [[Austria-Hungary]] on board the [[schooner]] ''Tegetthoff'', the expedition's primary goal was to find the [[Northeast Passage]] and its secondary goal to reach the [[North Pole]].<ref>Barr (1995): 107</ref> Starting in July 1872,<ref>Barr (1995): 110</ref> the vessel drifted from [[Novaya Zemlya]] to a new landmass,<ref>Barr (1995): 112</ref> which they named in honor of [[Franz Joseph I]] (1830–1916), [[Emperor of Austria]].<ref>Barr (1995): 119</ref> The expedition contributed significantly to the mapping and exploration of the islands. The next expedition to spot the archipelago was the Dutch Expedition for the Exploration of the Barents Sea, on board the schooner ''Willem Barents''. Constrained by the ice, they never reached land.<ref name=b61>Barr (1995): 61</ref>

===Polar exploration===
[[Benjamin Leigh Smith]]'s expedition in 1880, aboard the [[barque]] ''Eira'', followed a route from [[Spitsbergen]] to Franz Josef Land,<ref name=b61 /> landing on [[Bell Island (Franz Josef Land)|Bell Island]] in August. Leigh Smith explored the vicinity and set up a base at Eira Harbour, before exploring towards [[McClintock Island]]. He returned the following year in the same vessel, landing at Grey Bay on George Land.<ref name=b62>Barr (1995): 62</ref> The explorers were stopped by ice at [[Cape Flora]], and ''Eira'' sank on 21 August. They built a cottage and stayed the winter,<ref name=b63>Barr (1995): 63</ref> to be rescued by the British vessels ''Kara'' and ''Hope'' the following summer.<ref name=b64>Barr (1995): 64</ref> These early expeditions concentrated their explorations on the southern and central parts of the archipelago.<ref name=b65>Barr (1995): 65</ref>

[[File:CapeFloraMeeting.jpg|thumb|alt=Two men shake hands in the midst of a snowfield, with a dog sitting nearby. Dark hills are shown in the background.|The Nansen–Jackson meeting at [[Northbrook Island|Cape Flora]], 17 June 1896 (a posed photograph taken hours after the initial meeting)]]

[[Nansen's Fram expedition|Nansen's ''Fram'' expedition]] was an 1893–1896 attempt by the Norwegian explorer [[Fridtjof Nansen]] to reach the geographical North Pole by harnessing the natural east–west current of the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Departing in 1893, ''Fram'' drifted from the [[New Siberian Islands]] for one and a half years before Nansen became impatient and set out to reach the North Pole on skis with [[Hjalmar Johansen]]. Eventually, they gave up on reaching the pole and instead found their way to Franz Josef Land, the nearest land known to man. They were thus able to establish that there was no large landmass north of this archipelago.<ref name=b72>Barr (1995): 72</ref> In the meantime the [[Jackson–Harmsworth Expedition]] set off in 1894, set up a base on [[Bell Island (Franz Josef Land)|Bell Island]], and stayed for the winter.<ref name=b65 /> The following season they spent exploring.<ref>Barr (1995): 66</ref> By pure chance, at [[Cape Flora]] in the spring of 1896, Nansen stumbled upon [[Frederick George Jackson]], who was able to transport him back to Norway.<ref name="Barr 1995: 76">Barr (1995): 76</ref> Nansen and Jackson explored the northern, eastern, and western portions of the islands.<ref name=b65 />
Once the basic geography of Franz Josef Land had become apparent, expeditions shifted to using the archipelago as a basis to reach the North Pole. The first such attempt was conducted by the [[National Geographic Society]]-sponsored American journalist [[Walter Wellman]] in 1898.<ref name="Barr 1995: 76"/> The two Norwegians, Paul Bjørvig and Bernt Bentsen, stayed the winter 1898–9 at [[Cape Heller]] on [[Wilczek Land]], but insufficient fuel caused the latter to die.<ref>Barr (1995): 78</ref> Wellman returned the following year, but the polar expedition itself was quickly abandoned when they lost most of their equipment.<ref>Barr (1995): 79</ref>  Italian nobleman [[Luigi Amedeo]] organized the next expedition in 1899, on the [[Jason (ship)|''Stella Polare'']].<ref>Barr (1995): 80</ref> They stayed the winter,<ref>Barr (1995): 81</ref> and in February and again in March 1900 set out towards the pole, but failed to get far.<ref>Barr (1995): 82</ref>

[[File:Stella Polare 1899.jpg|thumb|upright|The ''Stella Polare'' was trapped and threatened to sink. The crew were obliged to land with the utmost haste and to secure materials for building a dwelling.]]
[[Evelyn Baldwin]], sponsored by [[William Ziegler (industrialist)|William Ziegler]], organized the [[Ziegler Polar Expedition]] of 1901. Setting up a base on [[Alger Island, Russia|Alger Island]], he stayed the winter exploring the area, but failed to press northwards. The expedition was largely regarded as an utter failure by the exploration and scientific community, which cited the lack of proper management. Unhappy with the outcome, Ziegler organized a new expedition, for which he appointed [[Anthony Fiala]], second-in-command in the first expedition, as leader.<ref name=b88>Barr (1995): 88</ref> It arrived in 1903 and spent the winter. Their ship, ''America'', was crushed beyond repair in December and disappeared in January. Still, they made two attempts towards the pole, both of which were quickly abandoned.<ref>Barr (1995): 90</ref> They were forced to stay another year, making yet another unsuccessful attempt at the pole, before being evacuated in 1905 by the ''[[Terra Nova (ship)|Terra Nova]]''.<ref name=b92>Barr (1995): 92</ref>

The first Russian expedition was carried out in 1901, when the icebreaker ''[[Yermak (1898 icebreaker)|Yermak]]'' traveled to the islands.<ref>Barr (1995): 130</ref> The next expedition, led by hydrologist [[Georgy Sedov]], embarked in 1912 but did not reach the archipelago until the following year because of ice. Among its scientific contributions were the first snow measurements of the archipelago, and the determination that changes of the [[magnetic field]] occur in cycles of fifteen years.<ref>Barr (1995): 131</ref> It also conducted topographical surveys of the surrounding area.<ref>Barr (1995): 132</ref> Scurvy set in during the second winter, killing a machinist. Despite lacking prior experience or sufficient provisions, Sedov insisted on pressing forward with a march to the pole. His condition deteriorated and he died on 6 March.<ref>Barr (1995): 133</ref>

[[File:Ziegler polar expedition, America by moonlight cph.3a02345.jpg|thumb|left|''America'' anchored at Teplitz Bay]]
''Hertha'' was sent to explore the area, and its captain, I. I. Islyamov, hoisted a [[Flag of Russia|Russian iron flag]] at Cape Flora and proclaimed Russian sovereignty over the archipelago. The act was motivated by the ongoing [[First World War]] and Russian fears of the [[Central Powers]] establishing themselves there. The world's first Arctic flight took place in August 1914, when Polish aviator (one of the first pilots of the Russian Navy) [[Jan Nagórski]] overflew Franz Josef Land in search of Sedov's group. ''Andromeda'' set out for the same purpose; while failing to locate them, the crew were able to finally determine the non-existence of Peterman Land and King Oscar Land, suspected lands north of the islands.<ref name=b134>Barr (1995): 134</ref>

===The Soviet Union===
Soviet expeditions were sent almost yearly from 1923.<ref name=b134 /> Franz Josef Land had been considered ''[[terra nullius]]'' – land belonging to no one – but on 15 April 1926 the Soviet Union declared its [[annexation]] of the archipelago. Emulating Canada's declaration of the [[sector principle]], they pronounced all land between the Soviet mainland and the North Pole to be Soviet territory. This principle has never been internationally recognized.<ref name=b95>Barr (1995): 95</ref> Both Italy and Norway protested.<ref name=b134 /> Norway was first and foremost concerned about its economic interests in the area, in a period when Norwegian hunters and whalers were also being barred from the [[White Sea]], Novaya Zemlya and Greenland; the Soviet government, however, largely remained passive, and did not evict Norwegian hunting ships during the following years. Nor did the Soviets interfere when, in 1928, several foreign ships entered the waters in search of the vanished [[airship]] ''[[Airship Italia|Italia]]''.<ref name=b95 />

Norway attempted both a diplomatic solution and a [[Lars Christensen]]-financed expedition to establish a weather station to gain economic control over the islands, but both failed in 1929.<ref name=b96>Barr (1995): 96</ref> Instead the Soviet icebreaker ''[[Sedov (icebreaker)|Sedov]]'' set out, led by [[Otto Schmidt]], landed in [[Hooker Island|Tikhaya Bay]], and began construction of a permanent base.<ref>Barr (1995): 136</ref> The Soviet government proposed renaming the archipelago Fridtjof Nansen Land in 1930, but the name never came into use.<ref name=b96 /> In 1930 the Norwegian [[Bratvaag Expedition]] visited the archipelago, but was asked by Soviet authorities  to respect Soviet territorial water in the future. Other expeditions that year were the Norwegian-Swedish balloon expedition led by [[Hans Wilhelmsson Ahlmann]] on ''Quest'' and the German airship ''[[LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin|Graf Zeppelin]]''.<ref>Barr (1995): 98</ref> Except for a [[Schatzgräber (weather station)|German weather station]] emplaced during the [[Second World War]], these were the last Western expeditions to Franz Josef Land until 1990.<ref name=b100>Barr (1995): 100</ref>

Soviet activities grew rapidly following the [[International Polar Year]] in 1932. The archipelago was circumnavigated, people landed on Victoria Island, and a [[topographical map]] was completed. In 1934–35 geological and glaciological expeditions were carried out, cartographic flights were flown, and up to sixty people stayed the winters between 1934 and 1936, which also saw the first birth. The first [[drifting ice station]] was set up out of Rudolf Island in 1936.<ref name=b138>Barr (1995): 138</ref> An [[airstrip]] was then constructed on a glacier on the island, and by 1937 the winter population hit 300.<ref>Barr (1995): 139</ref>

Activity dwindled during the [[Second World War]] and only a small group of men were kept at Rudolf Island, remaining unsupplied throughout the war.<ref name="b141"/> They never discovered Nazi Germany's establishment of a weather station, named [[Schatzgräber (weather station)|Schatzgräber]], on [[Alexandra Land]] as part of the [[North Atlantic weather war]]. The German station was evacuated in 1944 after the men were struck by [[trichinosis]] from eating [[polar bear]] meat.<ref>Barr (1995): 101</ref> Apparent physical evidence of the base was discovered in 2016.<ref>[https://www.sciencealert.com/russian-scientists-say-they-ve-discovered-a-secret-nazi-base-in-the-arctic Russian Scientists Say They've Discovered a Secret Nazi Base in The Arctic]</ref>

The [[Cold War]] produced renewed Soviet interest in the islands because of their strategic military significance. The islands were regarded as an "unsinkable aircraft carrier". The site of the former German weather station was selected as the location of a Soviet aerodrome and military base, [[Nagurskoye]]. With the advent of [[intercontinental ballistic missiles]], the Soviet Union changed its military strategy in 1956, abolishing the strategic need for an airbase on the archipelago. The [[International Geophysical Year]] of 1957 and 1958 gave a new rise to the scientific interest in the archipelago and an airstrip was built on Heiss Island in 1956. The following year the geophysical [[Ernst Krenkel Observatory]] was established there.<ref name=b141>Barr (1995): 141</ref> Activity at Tikhaya Bay was closed in 1959.<ref>Barr (1995): 142</ref>

Because of the islands' military significance, the Soviet Union closed off the area to foreign researchers, although Soviet researchers carried out various expeditions, including in geophysics, studies of the [[ionosphere]], marine biology, botany, ornithology, and glaciology.<ref name=b144>Barr (1995): 144</ref> The Soviet Union opened up the archipelago for international activities from 1990, with foreigners having fairly straightforward access.<ref name=":1">Barr (1995): 104</ref>

===Recent history===
[[File:Arkticheskiy trilistnik (2017) 02.jpg|thumb|upright=1.55|[[Nagurskoye (air base)|Nagurskoye]] is Russia's northernmost military base]]

As part of the opening up of Franz Josef Land, the Institute of Geography in Moscow, Stockholm University and Umeå University (Sweden) conducted expeditions to Alexandra Land in August 1990 and August 1991, studying climate- and glacial history by radiocarbon dating raised beaches and antlers from extinct caribou.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Glazovskiy|first1=Andrey|last2=Näslund|first2=Jens-Ove|last3=Zale|first3=Rolf|year=1992|title=Deglaciation and shoreline displacement on Alexandra Land, Franz Josef Land|journal=Geografiska Annaler|volume=74(A)|issue=4 |pages=283–293|doi=10.1080/04353676.1992.11880371 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Näslund|first1=Jens-Ove|last2=Zale|first2=Rolf|last3=Glazovskiy|first3=Andrey|year=1994|title=The Mid Holocene transgression on Alexandra Land, Franz Josef Land, Russia|journal=Geografiska Annaler|volume=76(A)|issue=1–2 |pages=97–101|doi=10.1080/04353676.1994.11880409 }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> The work was conducted from a small research base southwest of Nagurskoye, built in 1989. Also in 1990, a collaboration between the Academy of Sciences, the Norwegian Polar Institute and the [[Polish Academy of Sciences]] resulted in the first of several archaeological expeditions organized by the Institute of Culture in Moscow.<ref name=":1" /> The military base on Graham Bell Island was abandoned in the early 1990s. The military presence at Nagurskoye was reduced to that of a border post, and the number of people stationed at Krenkel Observatory was reduced from 70 to 12.<ref>Barr (1995): 151</ref> The archipelago and the surrounding waters were declared a [[nature reserve]] in April 1994. The opening of the archipelago also saw the introduction of tourism, most of which takes place on Russian-operated icebreakers.<ref name=b152>Barr (1995): 152</ref> In 2011, in a move to better accommodate tourism in the archipelago, the [[Russian Arctic National Park]] was expanded to include Franz Josef Land.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://barentsobserver.com/en/arctic/russia-ready-boost-arctic-tourism |title=Russia ready to boost Arctic tourism |last=Sazhenova |first=Anastasia |date=29 August 2011 |publisher=[[Barents Observer]]}}</ref>  However, in August 2019, Russia abruptly withdrew its approval for a Norwegian cruise ship to visit the islands.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/travel/2019/08/norwegian-cruise-ship-banned-entering-russian-arctic-waters |title=Norwegian cruise ship banned from sailing Franz Josef Land |last=Thomas|first=Nilsen |date=19 August 2019 |publisher=[[Barents Observer]]}}</ref>

In 2012, the [[Russian Air Force]] decided to reopen the [[Greem Bell Airfield|Graham Bell Airfield]] as part of a series of reopenings of air bases in the Arctic.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://barentsobserver.com/en/security/russia-reopens-arctic-airbases |title=Russia reopens Arctic airbases |last=Pettersen |first=Trude |date=31 May 2012 |publisher=[[Barents Observer]]}}</ref> A major new base, named the ''Arctic Trefoil'' for its three lobed structure, was constructed at [[Nagurskoye]]. It can maintain 150 soldiers for 18 months and has an area of 14,000 square meters.<ref>[http://conspiracy-cafe.blogspot.com/2015/10/russia-builds-second-military-base-to.html Russia Builds Second Military base to Support Arctic Ambitions]</ref> The upgraded airbase is considered a threat to the U.S. military installation at [[Thule Site J|Thule, Greenland]].<ref>Cela, Margrét, and Pia Hansson. Geopolitics and Neglected Arctic Spaces: Three Northern Perspectives on Balancing External Interests. Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), 2020. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep26993 JSTOR website] Retrieved 14 Sept. 2023.</ref>

In 2017, Russian president [[Vladimir Putin]] visited the archipelago.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/03/30/vladimir-putin-visits-arctic-archipelago-staking-claim-oil-rich/|title=Vladimir Putin visits Arctic archipelago and stakes claim to the oil-rich region|date=30 March 2017|publisher=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]}}</ref>

In August 2019, a geographic expedition by the [[Russian Northern Fleet]] to Franz Josef Land and [[Novaya Zemlya]] discovered a new island in the archipelago, previously thought to be a peninsula of [[Hall Island (Arctic)|Hall Island]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=William |date=2019-10-23 |title=Melting glaciers in the Russian Arctic uncover five new islands |url=https://oceanographicmagazine.com/news/melting-glaciers-uncover-new-islands/ |access-date=2024-08-23 |website=Oceanographic |language=en-GB}}</ref>