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Frederick Cook
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== Biography == Cook was born in [[Hortonville, New York]], in [[Sullivan County, New York|Sullivan County]]. (His birthplace is sometimes listed as [[Callicoon (CDP), New York|Callicoon]] or [[Delaware, New York|Delaware]], both also in Sullivan County.<ref>Bryce (1997), p. 3.</ref>) His parents, Theodor and Magdalena Koch, were recent German immigrants who adopted an anglicized version of their surname.<ref>{{cite web |title=Frederick A. Cook Chronology |url=https://library.osu.edu/frederick-a.-cook-chronology |website=Polar Archives |via=The Ohio State University Libraries |access-date=February 4, 2021}}</ref> He attended local schools before college. After graduating from [[Columbia University]], he studied medicine at what is today [[New York University|NYU]]'s [[New York University Grossman School of Medicine|Grossman School of Medicine]], receiving his doctorate <!-- or M.D.? -->in 1890. Cook married Libby Forbes in 1889. She died two years later. In 1902, on his 37th birthday, he married Marie Fidele Hunt. They had two daughters together.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/frederick-albert-cook-explorer-and-physician-usa-his-news-photo/501373901|title=Ruth and Helene Cook|work=Haeckel Collection|publisher=Getty Images|access-date=2018-09-26}}</ref> They divorced in 1923.<ref>{{cite web |title=Frederick A. Cook Chronology |url=https://library.osu.edu/frederick-a.-cook-chronology |website=Polar Archives |via=The Ohio State University Libraries |access-date=April 20, 2023}}</ref> === Early expeditions === Cook was the surgeon on [[Robert Peary]]'s Arctic expedition of 1891–1892, and on the [[Belgian Antarctic Expedition]] of 1897–1899. He contributed to saving the lives of its crew members when their ship – the {{RV|Belgica|1884|2}} – was ice-bound during the winter, as they had not prepared for such an event. It became the first expedition to winter in the Antarctic region. To prevent [[scurvy]], Cook went hunting to keep the crew supplied with fresh meat. One of the crew members was Roald Amundsen, who credited Cook with his survival in his diary of the expedition. In 1897, Cook twice visited [[Tierra del Fuego]], where he met the English missionary [[Thomas Bridges (missionary)|Thomas Bridges]]. They studied the [[Selkʼnam people|Selkʼnam]] and [[Yahgan people|Yahgan]] peoples, with whom Bridges had worked for two decades. During this time, Bridges had prepared a manuscript on their language's grammar and a dictionary of more than 30,000 words. Several years later, Cook tried to publish the dictionary as his own.<ref name="parson">[https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1910/05/21/104935739.pdf "Cook Tried to Steal Parson's Life Work"]. ''The New York Times'', May 21, 1910. Accessed October 3, 2013.</ref><ref>Bridges, E. L. (1948) The Uttermost Part of the Earth Republished 2008, Overlook Press ISBN 978-1-58567-956-0, Appendix II.</ref> === Summit of Denali === [[File:Fakepeak.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Alleged photo of [[Denali]]'s summit, now known as [[Fake Peak]]]] In 1903, Cook led an expedition to [[Denali]], during which he circumnavigated the range. He made a second journey in 1906, after which he claimed to have achieved the first summit of its peak with one other expedition crew member. Other members, including [[Belmore Browne]], whom Cook had left on the lower mountain, immediately but privately expressed doubt. Cook's claims were not publicly challenged until 1909 when the dispute with Peary over the North Pole claim erupted, with Peary's supporters claiming Cook's Denali ascent was also fraudulent. Unlike [[Harry Karstens]] and [[Hudson Stuck]] in 1913, Cook had not taken photographs from atop Denali. His alleged photo of the summit was found to have been taken on [[Fake Peak|a small outcrop on a ridge beside the Ruth Glacier]], {{Convert|19|mi|km|abbr=}} away.<ref>Bryce, R. (1997). [http://www.dioi.org/vols/w73.pdf "An aerial photograph by Bradford Washburn"]. ''DIO''. '''7''' (2). p. 40.</ref> In late 1909, Ed Barrill, Cook's sole companion during the 1906 climb, signed an affidavit saying that they had not reached the summit. In the late 20th century, historians found that he had been paid by Peary supporters to deny Cook's claim. (Henderson writes that this fact was covered up at the time, but Bryce says that it was never a secret.)<ref>[http://www.dioi.org/vols/w93.pdf ''DIO'']. '''9''' (3). p. 129. note 18.</ref> Up until a month before, Barrill had consistently asserted that he and Cook had reached the summit. His 1909 affidavit included a map correctly locating what came to be called [[Fake Peak]], featured in Cook's "summit" photo, and showing that he and Cook had turned back at the "Gateway" (north end of the Great Gorge, i.e. adjacent to [[Mount Barrille]]), 12 horizontal bee-line miles from Denali and {{Convert|3|mi|km|abbr=}} below its top.<ref>Bryce, R. (1997). [http://www.dioi.org/vols/w73.pdf ''DIO'']. '''7''' (2). p. 57.</ref> Climber [[Bradford Washburn]] gathered data, repeated the climbs, and took new photos to evaluate Cook's 1906 claim. Between 1956 and 1995, Washburn and Brian Okonek identified the locations of most of the photographs Cook took during his 1906 Denali foray and took new photos at the same spots. In 1997 Bryce identified the locations of the remaining photographs, including Cook's "summit" photograph; none were taken anywhere near the summit. Washburn showed that none of Cook's 1906 photos were taken past the Gateway.<ref>Compare rock-by-rock the left side of Cook's 1906 "summit" photo to the corresponding parts of the 1957 photo by Adams Carter and Bradford Washburn. Photos juxtaposed in Bryce, R. (1999). [http://www.dioi.org/vols/w93.pdf ''DIO'']. '''9''' (3). p. 116. Compare also the background features in Cook's "summit" photo versus those in his own photo taken a few minutes later (towards the same direction) from the top of Fake Peak: Bryce, R. (1997). [http://www.dioi.org/vols/w73.pdf ''DIO'']. '''7''' (2). figure 4 versus figure 18; detailed-blowup comparisons in figures 6 and 8.</ref> A 1910 expedition by the Mazama Club reported that Cook's map departed abruptly from the landscape at a point when the summit was still {{Convert|10|mi|km|abbr=}} distant. Critics of Cook's claims have compared Cook's map of his alleged 1906 route with the landscape of the last {{Convert|10|mi|km|abbr=}}.<ref>Bryce, R. (1997). [http://www.dioi.org/vols/w73.pdf ''DIO'']. '''7''' (3). pp. 96–97.</ref> Cook's descriptions of the summit ridge are variously claimed to bear no resemblance to the mountain<ref>{{cite book | title = The Dishonorable Dr. Cook: Debunking the Notorious Mount McKinley Hoax | first = Bradford | last = Washburn | author-link = Bradford Washburn |author2=Peter Cherici | year = 2001 | location = Seattle | publisher = Mountaineers Books | oclc = 47054650}}</ref> and to have been verified by many subsequent climbers.<ref>Henderson (2005), p. 282.</ref> In the 1970s, climber Hans Waale found a route that fitted both Cook's narrative and descriptions.<ref>[http://www.dioi.org/vols/w73.pdf Bryce (1997) ''DIO''], p. 73.</ref> Three decades later, in 2005 and 2006, this route was successfully climbed by a group of Russian mountaineers.<ref>[http://www.shparo.com/Cook/Cook_main.htm "Following the traces of Dr. Frederick Cook"], SH Paro.</ref> No evidence of Cook's purported journey between the "Gateway" and the summit has been found. His claim to have reached the summit is not supported by his photos' vistas, his two sketch maps' markers, and peak-numberings for points attained.<ref>Bryce. (1997). ''DIO'' pp. 60–61.</ref> Similarly, neither his recorded compass bearings, barometer readings, route-map, nor camp trash support his claim of reaching the summit. In contrast, evidence in all of these categories have been found short of the Gateway.<ref>Bryce, R. (1999). [http://www.dioi.org/vols/w93.pdf ''DIO'']. '''9''' (3). pp. 124–125.</ref> === North Pole === [[File:Frederick Cook's 1909 arctic expedition.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Photo allegedly taken at, or near, the [[North Pole]]]] Cook returned to the [[Arctic]] in 1907. He planned to attempt to reach the [[North Pole]], although he did not announce his intention until August 1907, when he was already in the Arctic. He left [[Annoatok]], a small settlement in the north of [[Greenland]], in February 1908. Cook claimed that he reached the pole on April 21, 1908, after traveling north from [[Axel Heiberg Island]], taking with him only two Inuit men, Ahpellah and Etukishook. On the journey south, he claimed to have been cut off from his intended route to Annoatok by open water. Living off local game, his party was forced to push south to [[Jones Sound]], spending the open water season and part of the winter on [[Devon Island]]. From there they traveled north, eventually crossing [[Nares Strait]] to Annoatok on the Greenland side in the spring of 1909. They said they almost died of starvation during the journey. Cook and his two companions were gone from Annoatok for 14 months, and their whereabouts in that period is a matter of intense controversy. In the view of Canadian historian [[Pierre Berton]] (Berton, 2001), Cook's story of his trek around the Arctic islands is probably legitimate. Other writers have relied on later accounts told by Cook's companions to investigators, who seemed to present another view. There are similarities between Ahpellah and Etukishook's sketched route of their journey south, and the route taken by the fictional shipwrecked explorers in [[Jules Verne]]'s novel ''[[The Adventures of Captain Hatteras]]''. For example, the route the two Inuit traced on a map goes over both the Pole of Cold and the wintering site of the fictional expedition. Both expeditions went to the same area of [[Jones Sound]] in hopes of finding a whaling ship to take them to civilization.<ref>Osczevski (2003).</ref> Cook's claim was initially widely believed, but it was disputed by Cook's rival polar explorer [[Robert Peary]], who claimed to have reached the North Pole in April 1909. Cook initially congratulated Peary for his achievement, but Peary and his supporters launched a campaign to discredit Cook. They enlisted the aid of socially prominent people outside the field of science, such as [[American football|football]] [[Coach (sport)|coach]] [[Fielding H. Yost]] (as related in [[Fred Russell]]'s 1943 book, ''I'll Go Quietly''). [[File:Picture of Frederick Cook.jpg|thumb|Cook in Arctic gear]] Cook never produced detailed original navigational records to substantiate his claim to have reached the North Pole. He said that his detailed records were part of his belongings, contained in three boxes, which he left at Annoatok in April 1909. He had left them with [[Harry Whitney]], an American hunter who had traveled to Greenland with Peary the previous year due to the lack of manpower for a second sledge-journey {{Convert|700|mi|km|abbr=}} south to [[Upernavik]]. When Whitney tried to bring Cook's boxes with him on his return to the US on Peary's ship ''Roosevelt'' in 1909, Peary refused to allow them on board. As a result, Whitney left Cook's boxes in a cache in Greenland. They were never found. On December 21, 1909, a commission at the [[University of Copenhagen]], after having examined evidence submitted by Cook, ruled that his records did not contain proof that the explorer reached the Pole.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1909/12/22/101752152.pdf | title=University Finds That Cook's Papers Contain no Proof That He Reached the North Pole | newspaper=The New York Times | date=December 22, 1909 | access-date=2011-12-20}}</ref> (Peary refused to submit his records for review by such a third party, and for decades the [[National Geographic Society]], which held his papers, refused researchers access to them.) Cook intermittently claimed he had kept copies of his sextant navigational data, and in 1911 published some.<ref>Cook, F. (1911). ''My Attainment of the Pole''. pp. 258, 274. Cook's first account of what he left with Whitney did not mention data, and Whitney knew of no data in what was left with him. See Rawlins, 1973, pp. 87, 166, 301–302.</ref> These have an incorrect solar diameter.<ref>Rawlins (1972). ''[[Norwegian Journal of Geography]]''. Oslo University. '''26'''. pp. 135–140.</ref> Ahwelah and Etukishook, Cook's Inuit companions, gave seemingly conflicting details about where they had gone with him. The major conflicts have been resolved in the light of improved geographical knowledge.<ref>Osczevski, R. J. (2003). ''Arctic''. '''56''' (4).</ref> Whitney was convinced that they had reached the North Pole with Cook, but was reluctant to be drawn into the controversy. The Peary expedition's people (primarily [[Matthew Henson]], who had a working knowledge of Inuit, and George Borup, who did not) claimed that Ahwelah and Etukishook told them they had traveled only a few days from land. A map allegedly was drawn by Ahwelaw and Etukishook that correctly located and accurately depicted then-unknown [[Meighen Island]], which strongly suggests that they visited it as they claimed.<ref>Osczevski, R. J. (2003). "Frederick Cook and the Forgotten Pole". ''Arctic''. '''56''' (2). pp. 207–217.</ref><ref>Rawlins, 1973, Chapter 6.</ref> Canadian [[Vilhjalmur Stefansson]]'s [[Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913–1916|expedition in 1916]] later landed on Meighen Island; Stefansson later read Cook's papers and agreed that Meighen Island was a Cook discovery. It is known as the only island to be discovered by a United States expedition in the North American arctic.<ref>[http://www.dioi.org/cot.htm#mvmn Discoveries: "Meighen Island"], DIOI.</ref> For more detail see Bryce (1997) and Henderson (2005). The conflicting claims of Cook and Peary prompted [[Roald Amundsen]] to take extensive precautions in navigation during his [[South Pole]] expedition so there could be no doubt concerning attainment of the pole if successful. Amundsen also had the advantage of traveling over a continent. He left unmistakable evidence of his presence at the South Pole, whereas any ice on which Cook might or might not have camped would have drifted many miles in the year between the competing claims. At the end of his 1911 memoir, Cook wrote: "I have stated my case, presented my proofs. As to the relative merits of my claim, and Mr. Peary's, place the two records side by side. Compare them. I shall be satisfied with your decision."
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