Editing Gallic Wars (section)

==Background==
=== Sociopolitical ===
The tribes of Gaul were civilized and wealthy, constituting what is known to archeologists as the [[La Tène culture]]. Most had contact with Roman merchants and some, such as the [[Aedui]], who were governed by republics, had enjoyed stable political alliances with Rome in the past. During the first century, parts of Gaul were becoming urbanized, which concentrated wealth and population centers, inadvertently making Roman conquest easier. Though the Romans considered the Gauls to be barbarians, their cities mirrored those of the Mediterranean. They struck coins and traded extensively with Rome, providing iron, grain, and many slaves. In exchange, the Gauls accumulated much wealth and developed a taste for Roman wine. The contemporary writer [[Diodoros]] explains that part of the conception of Gallic barbarity was because they drank their wine straight, unlike the supposedly civilized Romans who watered down their wine first. However, the Romans realized the Gauls were a powerful fighting force, and considered some of the most "barbaric" tribes to be the fiercest warriors, as they were supposedly uncorrupted by Roman luxuries.{{Sfn|Gilliver|2003|pp=7, 13–15}}

=== Military ===
[[File:Aquilifer romain Arverniales 2012-2.jpg|alt=Man in chain armor holding a long staff|thumb|A modern re-enactor in 2012 wearing the gear that a VII legion standard bearer would have during the Gallic Wars era.]]
[[File:Camp des Pictes (93).JPG|thumb|A modern re-enactor in 2018 with the typical panoply of a wealthier Gallic warrior.]]
The Gauls and the Romans had significantly different [[Strategy of the Roman military|military strategies]]. The [[Roman army]] was extremely disciplined, kept standing between conflicts, and made mostly of heavy infantry; any [[Auxilia|auxiliary units]] were fielded from the less disciplined Roman allies, which as the war progressed would include some Gauls. By comparison, the Gauls were an irregular and less disciplined fighting force. Individual Gauls outfitted themselves, as did Romans, a practice that continued into the early Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Gauthier|2015|pp=32, 33, 83|ps=, the last of which cites Tac. ''Ann.'' 1.17.6.}}</ref> Wealthier soldiers had better [[Roman military personal equipment|equipment]]. Unlike the Romans, the Gauls were a warrior culture. They prized acts of bravery and individual courage; frequent raiding of neighboring tribes kept their fighting skills sharp. Compared to the Romans, the Gauls carried longer swords and had far superior cavalry. The Gauls were generally taller than the Romans (a fact that seems to have embarrassed the Romans) and this combined with their longer swords gave them a reach advantage in combat. Both sides used archers and [[Sling (weapon)|slingers]]. Little is known about Gallic battle strategy, and the effectiveness of Gallic slingers and archers is unknown. What is known indicates that battle strategy varied between tribes, although engagement in pitched battle was frequent, to prove bravery. Not all tribes engaged the Romans directly, as Rome was a formidable enemy. The Gauls frequently used [[attrition warfare]] against them. While the Gauls had much more flair in combat (such as fighting in intricately decorated armor, or even in the nude), the superior discipline and formation of the Romans generally gave them an advantage in hand-to-hand fighting.{{Sfn|Gilliver|2003|pp=18–29}}

The Wars cemented the Roman use of the [[Cohort (military unit)|cohort]] instead of the [[Maniple (military unit)|maniple]]. First described by [[Polybius]] as an administrative unit that was used in a battle in 206&nbsp;BC,{{sfn|Taylor|2019|p=81}} it had become a tactical unit by the 130s.{{sfn|Taylor|2019|pp=76, 82}} Typically a quarter the size of a cohort, the maniple had proved too small and ineffective. The cohort was an effective counterbalance to Gallic and Germanic tactics. The system diversified the ranks by combining men from different socio-economic ranks: unlike in the maniple system, rich and poor fought alongside each other in a single uniform unit, greatly increasing overall morale by removing resentment.{{Sfn|Matthew|2009|pp=35–37}} A cohort held 480 men. Ten cohorts, combined with a small cavalry unit, engineers, and officers, made a [[Roman legion|legion]] of around 5,000 men.{{Sfn|Matthew|2009|pp=35–37}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2016}}

The practices of the army's [[baggage train]] would prove insufficient at times during the Wars. Following common practice of Roman generals as early as [[Scipio Aemilianus]],{{sfn|Taylor|2019|p=79 n. 18}} each legionary was required to carry a substantial amount of his own gear, including weapons, and rations enough to operate independently of the baggage train for a few days. This reduced the size of the baggage train greatly and allowed for a legion to temporarily march well ahead of its baggage. Still, a legion usually had around a thousand beasts of burden to carry the tents, siege equipment, reserve food, entrenching tools, records, [[Sarcina|personal effects]], and all other items a large army needed. While on march, the average legion with train stretched out for about {{Convert|2.5|mi|km|abbr=on}}. Such a large number of animals also required a great deal of grazing or fodder; this limited campaigning to times when there was grass or adequate supplies. The logistical challenges of the baggage train forced the Romans' hand many times during the wars.{{Sfn|Matthew|2009|pp=39–49}}

The Romans respected and feared the Gallic tribes. In 390&nbsp;BC, the [[Gallic sack of Rome|Gauls had sacked Rome]], which left an existential dread of barbarian conquest the Romans never forgot. In 121&nbsp;BC, Rome conquered a group of southern Gauls, and established the province of [[Transalpine|Transalpine Gaul]] in the conquered lands.{{Sfn|Gilliver|2003|p=11}} Only 50 years before the Gallic Wars, in 109&nbsp;BC, Italy had been [[Cimbrian War|invaded from the north]] and saved by [[Gaius Marius]] (uncle and father figure to Julius Caesar) only after several bloody and costly battles. Around 63&nbsp;BC, when a Roman client state, the Gallic [[Arverni]], conspired with the Gallic [[Sequani]] and the Germanic [[Suebi]] nations east of the [[Rhine]] to attack the Gallic Aedui, a strong Roman ally, Rome turned a blind eye. The Sequani and the Arverni defeated the Aedui in 63&nbsp;BC at the [[Battle of Magetobriga]].{{Sfn|Grant|1974|p=87}}{{Sfn|Walter|1952|p=159}}{{Sfn|Goldsworthy|2007|p=246}}

=== Julius Caesar ===
[[File:Retrato de Julio César (26724093101) (cropped).jpg|alt=Marble bust of a balding man|thumb|The [[Tusculum portrait]] of Julius Caesar|left]]
Rising politician and general [[Julius Caesar]] was the Roman commander and agonist of the war. As a result of the financial burdens of being [[consul]] (the highest office in the Roman Republic) in 59&nbsp;BC, Caesar had incurred significant debts. To strengthen Rome's position among the Gauls, he had paid substantial money to [[Ariovistus]], king of the Suebi, to cement an alliance.{{Sfn|von Ungern-Sternberg|2014|p=91}}{{Sfn|Gilliver|2003|pp=16–17}} Through his influence as part of the [[First Triumvirate]] (the political alliance which comprised [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]], [[Pompey]], and himself) during his consulship, Caesar had secured his assignment as [[proconsul]] (governor) to two provinces, [[Cisalpine Gaul]] and [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]], by passage of the ''[[Lex Vatinia]]''.{{Sfn|von Ungern-Sternberg|2014|p=91}} When the governor of [[Transalpine Gaul]], [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer|Metellus Celer]], died unexpectedly, the province was also awarded to Caesar at the suggestion of Pompey and Caesar's father-in-law, [[Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus (consul 58 BC)|Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus]]. In the law granting him command of the provinces, Caesar was given a five-year term as proconsul.{{sfn|Chrissanthos|2019|p=73}} This was longer than the traditional one-year term that consuls received, enabling him to engage in a military campaign without fear of command turnover.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Province {{!}} ancient Roman government|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/province-ancient-Roman-government|access-date=2021-09-02|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Lord|2012a|pp=23–24}}

Caesar had four veteran legions under his direct command initially: [[Legio VII Claudia|Legio&nbsp;VII]], [[Legio VIII Augusta|Legio&nbsp;VIII]], [[Legio&nbsp;IX Hispana]], and [[Legio X Equestris|Legio&nbsp;X]]. As he had been governor of [[Hispania Ulterior]] in 61&nbsp;BC and had campaigned successfully with them against the [[Lusitanians]], Caesar knew most, perhaps even all, of the legions personally. He also had the legal authority to levy additional legions and [[auxiliaries (Roman military)|auxiliary units]] as he saw fit. The assignment of the province that comprises what is now [[Northern Italy]] was helpful to his ambitions: the [[Po Valley]] and the adjoining regions had large numbers of Roman citizens, who could be enticed to sign up for legionary service.{{sfn|Chrissanthos|2019|p=73}}

His ambition was to conquer and plunder some territories to get himself out of debt. It is possible that Gaul was not his initial target; he may have been planning a campaign against the Kingdom of [[Dacia]] in the [[Balkans]] instead.{{sfn|Caesar|1982|pp=7–16}} However, a mass migration of Gallic tribes in 58&nbsp;BC provided a convenient ''[[casus belli]]'', and Caesar prepared for war.{{Sfn|Gilliver|2003|pp=16–17}}