Editing Genetic engineering (section)

==Overview==

[[File:Breeding transgenesis cisgenesis.svg|thumb|Comparison of conventional plant breeding with [[transgenic]] and [[cisgenic]] genetic modification|upright=1.7]]

Genetic engineering is a process that alters the genetic structure of an organism by either removing or introducing [[DNA]], or modifying existing genetic material in situ. Unlike traditional [[animal breeding|animal]] and [[plant breeding]], which involves doing multiple crosses and then selecting for the organism with the desired [[phenotype]], genetic engineering takes the [[gene]] directly from one organism and delivers it to the other. This is much faster, can be used to insert any genes from any organism (even ones from different [[Domain (biology)|domains]]) and prevents other undesirable genes from also being added.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/gm-plants/how-does-gm-differ-from-conventional-plant-breeding/|title=How does GM differ from conventional plant breeding?|website=royalsociety.org|language=en-gb|access-date=2017-11-14}}</ref>

Genetic engineering could potentially fix severe [[genetic disorder]]s in humans by replacing the defective gene with a functioning one.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ethical Issues in Scientific Research: An Anthology |last1=Erwin |first1=Edward |last2=Gendin |first2=Sidney |last3=Kleiman |first3=Lowell | name-list-style = vanc |date=2015-12-22 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-81774-0 |page=338 }}</ref> It is an important tool in research that allows the function of specific genes to be studied.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Alexander DR | title = Uses and abuses of genetic engineering | journal = Postgraduate Medical Journal | volume = 79 | issue = 931 | pages = 249–51 | date = May 2003 | pmid = 12782769 | pmc = 1742694 | doi = 10.1136/pmj.79.931.249 }}</ref> Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nielsen J | title = Production of biopharmaceutical proteins by yeast: advances through metabolic engineering | journal = Bioengineered | volume = 4 | issue = 4 | pages = 207–11 | date = 2013-07-01 | pmid = 23147168 | pmc = 3728191 | doi = 10.4161/bioe.22856 }}</ref> [[List of genetically modified crops|Crops]] have been developed that aid [[food security]] by increasing yield, nutritional value and tolerance to environmental stresses.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Qaim M, Kouser S | title = Genetically modified crops and food security | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 6 | pages = e64879 | date = 2013-06-05 | pmid = 23755155 | pmc = 3674000 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0064879 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...864879Q | doi-access = free }}</ref>

The DNA can be introduced directly into the [[host organism]] or into a cell that is then [[Cell fusion|fused]] or [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridised]] with the host.<ref name="EU17">{{Cite periodical |title=Directive on the release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) Directive 2001/18/EC ANNEX I A|periodical=Official Journal of the European Communities|date=12 March 2001|author=The European Parliament and the council of the European Union|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32001L0018}}</ref> This relies on [[Recombinant DNA|recombinant nucleic acid]] techniques to form new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material either indirectly through a [[Vector (molecular biology)|vector]] system or directly through [[microinjection|micro-injection]], macro-injection or [[micro-encapsulation]]. 

Genetic engineering does not normally include traditional breeding, [[in vitro fertilisation]], induction of [[polyploidy]], [[mutagenesis]] and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant [[Nucleic acid|nucleic acids]] or a [[genetically modified organism]] in the process.<ref name="EU17" /> However, some broad definitions of genetic engineering include [[selective breeding]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/publi/gmo/gmo.pdf |title=Economic Impacts of Genetically Modified Crops on the Agri-Food Sector; p. 42 Glossary – Term and Definitions |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514202621/http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/publi/gmo/gmo.pdf |archive-date=14 May 2013 |website=The European Commission Directorate-General for Agriculture |quote=Genetic engineering: The manipulation of an organism's genetic endowment by introducing or eliminating specific genes through modern molecular biology techniques. A broad definition of genetic engineering also includes selective breeding and other means of artificial selection}}</ref> [[Cloning]] and [[stem cell]] research, although not considered genetic engineering,<ref>{{cite web|title=Is Livestock Cloning Another Form of Genetic Engineering? |last=Van Eenennaam |first=Alison | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=agbiotech |url=http://agribiotech.info/details/Alison%20-%20cloning%20March%208%20-%2003.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511121055/http://agribiotech.info/details/Alison%20-%20cloning%20March%208%20-%2003.pdf |archive-date=11 May 2011 }}</ref> are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Suter DM, Dubois-Dauphin M, Krause KH | title = Genetic engineering of embryonic stem cells | journal = [[Swiss Medical Weekly]] | volume = 136 | issue = 27–28 | pages = 413–5 | date = July 2006 | doi = 10.4414/smw.2006.11406 | pmid = 16897894 | s2cid = 4945176 | url = http://www.smw.ch/docs/pdf200x/2006/27/smw-11406.PDF | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110707003215/http://www.smw.ch/docs/pdf200x/2006/27/smw-11406.PDF | archive-date = 7 July 2011 }}</ref> [[Synthetic biology]] is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Andrianantoandro E, Basu S, Karig DK, Weiss R | title = Synthetic biology: new engineering rules for an emerging discipline | journal = Molecular Systems Biology | volume = 2 | issue = 2006.0028 | pages = 2006.0028 | date = 16 May 2006 | pmid = 16738572 | pmc = 1681505 | doi = 10.1038/msb4100073  }}</ref>

Plants, animals or microorganisms that have been changed through genetic engineering are termed [[genetically modified organism]]s or GMOs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csiro.au/Outcomes/Food-and-Agriculture/WhatIsGM.aspx|title=What is genetic modification (GM)?|publisher=[[CSIRO]]}}</ref> If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called [[transgenic]]. If genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called [[cisgenic]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11540-008-9097-y |title=Cisgenesis, a New Tool for Traditional Plant Breeding, Should be Exempted from the Regulation on Genetically Modified Organisms in a Step by Step Approach |year=2008 | vauthors = Jacobsen E, Schouten HJ |journal=Potato Research |volume=51 |pages=75–88|s2cid=38742532 |url=http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/fulltext/44813 }}</ref> If genetic engineering is used to remove genetic material from the target organism the resulting organism is termed a [[gene knockout|knockout]] organism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Capecchi MR | title = Generating mice with targeted mutations | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 7 | issue = 10 | pages = 1086–90 | date = October 2001 | pmid = 11590420 | doi = 10.1038/nm1001-1086 | s2cid = 14710881 }}</ref> In Europe genetic modification is [[synonymous]] with genetic engineering while within the United States of America and Canada genetic modification can also be used to refer to more conventional breeding methods.<ref>Staff [http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome?contentid=BiotechnologyGlosary.xml&navid= Biotechnology – Glossary of Agricultural Biotechnology Terms] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140830102928/http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome?contentid=BiotechnologyGlosary.xml&navid= |date=30 August 2014 }} United States Department of Agriculture, "Genetic modification: The production of heritable improvements in plants or animals for specific uses, via either genetic engineering or other more traditional methods. Some countries other than the United States use this term to refer specifically to genetic engineering.", Retrieved 5 November 2012</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Genetically Engineered Foods|first=James H. |last=Maryanski | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition at the [[Food and Drug Administration]]|date=19 October 1999|url=https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Testimony/ucm115032.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709233654/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Testimony/ucm115032.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 July 2009}}</ref><ref>Staff (28 November 2005) [http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/sr-sr/pubs/biotech/reg_gen_mod-eng.php Health Canada – The Regulation of Genetically Modified Food] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170610170104/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/sr-sr/pubs/biotech/reg_gen_mod-eng.php |date=10 June 2017 }} Glossary definition of Genetically Modified: "An organism, such as a plant, animal or bacterium, is considered genetically modified if its genetic material has been altered through any method, including conventional breeding. A 'GMO' is a genetically modified organism.", Retrieved 5 November 2012</ref>