Editing Globalization (section)

==Etymology and usage==
The word globalization was used in the English language as early as the 1930s, but only in the context of education, and the term failed to gain traction. Over the next few decades, the term was occasionally used by other scholars and media, but it was not clearly defined.<ref name="tandfonline.com" /> One of the first usages of the term in the meaning resembling the later, was by French economist [[François Perroux]] in his essays from the early 1960s (in his French works he used the term "''mondialisation''" (literarly worldization in [[French language|French]]), also translated as mundialization).<ref name="tandfonline.com" /> [[Theodore Levitt]] is often credited with popularizing the term and bringing it into the mainstream business audience in the later in the middle of 1980s.<ref name="tandfonline.com" />

Though often treated as synonyms, in French, globalization is seen as a stage following mondialisation, a stage that implies the dissolution of national identities and the abolishment of borders inside the world network of economic exchanges.<ref>{{cite journal
|last=Sorinel
|first=Cosma
|title=Globalization and Mondialisation – A Conceptual Analysis
|journal=Ovidius University Annals
|series=Economic Sciences Series
|issue=2
|pages=27–30
|department=Ovidius University of Constantza, Faculty of Economic Sciences, Decembre
|url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/ovi/oviste/vxiiy2012i2p27-30.html
|year=2012
}}</ref>

Since its inception, the concept of globalization has inspired competing definitions and interpretations. Its antecedents date back to the great movements of trade and empire across Asia and the Indian Ocean from the 15th century onward.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Globalization in World History|publisher=Norton|year=2002|isbn=0-393-97942-3|editor-last=Hopkins|editor-first=Antony G.|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/globalizationinw00agho/page/4 4–8]|oclc=50028410|url=https://archive.org/details/globalizationinw00agho/page/4}}</ref><ref name="Bakari13">{{cite journal|last=Bakari|first=Mohamed El-Kamel|title=Globalization and Sustainable Development: False Twins?|journal=New Global Studies|volume=7|issue=3|pages=23–56|issn=1940-0004|doi=10.1515/ngs-2013-021|year=2013|s2cid=154786395}}</ref>

In 1848, [[Karl Marx]] noticed the increasing level of national inter-dependence brought on by [[capitalism]], and predicted the universal character of the modern world society. He states:
{{blockquote|text= The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world market given a cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every country. To the great chagrin of Reactionists, it has drawn from under the feet of industry the national ground on which it stood. All old-established national industries have been destroyed or are daily being destroyed. . . . In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal inter-dependence of nations.<ref>{{cite book |author=Karl Marx |author2=Friedrich Engels |title=The Communist Manifesto|pages=47–103|publisher=Pluto Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt1k85dmc.4 |jstor=j.ctt1k85dmc |isbn=978-1-78680-025-1 |chapter=Manifesto of the Communist Party|year=2017|s2cid=53056560 |url=https://stars.library.ucf.edu/context/prism/article/1079/viewcontent/Manifesto_of_the_Communist_Party.pdf }}</ref>}}

Sociologists [[Martin Albrow]] and Elizabeth King define globalization as "all those processes by which the people of the world are incorporated into a single world society."<ref name="Albrow" /> In ''The Consequences of Modernity'', [[Anthony Giddens]] writes: "Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of worldwide [[social relation]]s which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa."<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Consequences of Modernity|last=Giddens|first=Anthony|publisher=Polity Press|year=1990|isbn=0-7456-0793-4|location=Cambridge|page=64|oclc=22305142}}</ref> In 1992, [[Roland Robertson]], professor of sociology at the [[University of Aberdeen]] and an early writer in the field, described globalization as "the compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of the world as a whole."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/globalizationsoc0000robe|title=Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture|last=Robertson|first=Roland|publisher=Sage|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8039-8187-4|edition=Reprint.|location=London|oclc=28634687|url-access=registration}}</ref>

In ''Global Transformations'', [[David Held]] and his co-writers state:
{{blockquote|text=Although in its simplistic sense globalization refers to the widening, deepening and speeding up of global interconnection, such a definition begs further elaboration. ... Globalization can be on a continuum with the local, national and regional. At one end of the continuum lie social and economic relations and networks which are organized on a local and/or national basis; at the other end lie social and economic relations and networks which crystallize on the wider scale of regional and global interactions. Globalization can refer to those spatial-temporal processes of change which underpin a transformation in the organization of human affairs by linking together and expanding human activity across regions and continents. Without reference to such expansive spatial connections, there can be no clear or coherent formulation of this term. ... A satisfactory definition of globalization must capture each of these elements: extensity (stretching), intensity, velocity and impact.<ref>Held, David; Goldblatt, David; McGrew, Anthony; Perraton, Jonathan (1999). ''Global Transformations'' Cambridge: Polity Press. {{ISBN|978-0-7456-1498-4}}</ref>|sign=|source=|}}

Held and his co-writers' definition of globalization in that same book as "transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions—assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact—generating transcontinental or inter-regional flows" was called "probably the most widely-cited definition" in the 2014 [[Pankaj Ghemawat|DHL Global Connectiveness Index]].<ref name="DHL">{{cite web|url=http://www.dhl.com/content/dam/Campaigns/gci2014/downloads/dhl_gci_2014_study_high.pdf|title=DHL Global Connectedness Index 2014|date=11 March 2014|publisher=[[DHL]]|access-date=31 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202020111/http://www.dhl.com/content/dam/Campaigns/gci2014/downloads/dhl_gci_2014_study_high.pdf|archive-date=2 February 2015}}</ref>

Swedish journalist Thomas Larsson, in his book ''The Race to the Top: The Real Story of Globalization'', states that globalization:

{{blockquote|...is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer. It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody on the other side of the world.<ref>Larsson, Thomas. (2001). ''The Race to the Top: The Real Story of Globalization'' Washington, DC: Cato Institute. p. 9. {{ISBN|978-1-930865-15-0}}</ref>}}

[[Paul James (academic)|Paul James]] defines globalization with a more direct and historically contextualized emphasis:

<blockquote>Globalization is the extension of social relations across world-space, defining that world-space in terms of the historically variable ways that it has been practiced and socially understood through changing world-time.<ref name=James2005>{{Cite journal | year=2005 | last=James |first=Paul | title= Arguing Globalizations: Propositions Towards an Investigation of Global Formation | url= https://www.academia.edu/5246805 | journal= Globalizations | volume= 2 | issue= 2 | pages=193–209 | doi=10.1080/14747730500202206| bibcode=2005Glob....2..193J | s2cid=146553776 }}</ref></blockquote>

[[Manfred Steger]], professor of [[global studies]] and research leader in the [[Global Cities Institute]] at [[RMIT University]], identifies four main empirical [[dimensions of globalization]]: economic, political, cultural, and [[ecological]]. A fifth dimension—the ideological—cutting across the other four. The ideological dimension, according to Steger, is filled with a range of [[Norm (social)|norms]], claims, beliefs, and narratives about the phenomenon itself.<ref>{{cite book|title=Globalization: A Very Short Introduction|last=Steger|first=Manfred|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-955226-9|location=New York|page=11}}</ref>

James and Steger stated that the concept of globalization "emerged from the intersection of four interrelated sets of '[[communities of practice]]' ([[Étienne Wenger|Wenger]], 1998): academics, journalists, publishers/editors, and librarians."<ref name="tandfonline.com" />{{Rp|424}} They note the term was used "in education to describe the global life of the mind"; in [[international relations]] to describe the extension of the [[European Common Market]], and in journalism to describe how the "American Negro and his problem are taking on a global significance".<ref name="tandfonline.com" /> They have also argued that four forms of globalization can be distinguished that complement and cut across the solely empirical dimensions.<ref name=James2005/><ref>{{Cite journal|year=2013|title=Levels of Subjective Globalization: Ideologies, Imaginaries, Ontologies|url=https://www.academia.edu/4311113|journal=Perspectives on Global Development and Technology|volume=12|issue=1–2|author1=Manfred B. Steger|author2=Paul James}}</ref> According to James, the oldest dominant form of globalization is embodied globalization, the movement of people. A second form is agency-extended globalization, the circulation of agents of different institutions, organizations, and [[polities]], including [[Imperialism|imperial]] agents. Object-extended globalization, a third form, is the movement of [[commodities]] and other objects of exchange. He calls the transmission of ideas, images, knowledge, and information across world-space disembodied globalization, maintaining that it is currently the dominant form of globalization. James holds that this series of distinctions allows for an understanding of how, today, the most embodied forms of globalization such as the movement of [[refugee]]s and [[Immigration|migrants]] are increasingly restricted, while the most disembodied forms such as the circulation of financial instruments and codes are the most [[deregulated]].<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2014|title=Faces of Globalization and the Borders of States: From Asylum Seekers to Citizens|url=https://www.academia.edu/7773440|journal=Citizenship Studies|volume=18|issue=2|pages=208–23|doi=10.1080/13621025.2014.886440|last1=James|first1=Paul|s2cid=144816686}}</ref>

The journalist [[Thomas L. Friedman]] popularized the term [[The World Is Flat|"flat world"]], arguing that [[Global trade|globalized trade]], [[outsourcing]], [[supply chain|supply-chaining]], and political forces had permanently changed the world, for better and worse. He asserted that the pace of globalization was quickening and that its impact on business organization and practice would continue to grow.<ref>Friedman, Thomas L. "The Dell Theory of Conflict Prevention". ''Emerging: A Reader.'' Ed. Barclay Barrios. Boston: Bedford, St. Martins, 2008. 49</ref>

Economist [[Takis Fotopoulos]] defined "economic globalization" as the opening and deregulation of [[Commodity market|commodity]], [[Capital market|capital]], and [[labor markets]] that led toward present [[neoliberal]] globalization. He used "political globalization" to refer to the emergence of a transnational [[élite]] and a phasing out of the [[nation-state]]. Meanwhile, he used "cultural globalization" to reference the worldwide homogenization of culture. Other of his usages included "[[ideological]] globalization", "[[technological]] globalization", and "social globalization".<ref>Fotopoulos, Takis. (2001). "Globalization, the reformist Left and the Anti-Globalization 'Movement.'" [http://www.inclusivedemocracy.org/dn/vol7/takis_globalisation.htm ''Democracy & Nature: The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy'', 7:(2) (July 2001).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426000403/http://www.inclusivedemocracy.org/dn/vol7/takis_globalisation.htm |date=26 April 2009 }}</ref>

Lechner and Boli (2012) define globalization as more people across large distances becoming connected in more and different ways.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Globalization Reader|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-0-470-65563-4|editor-last=Lechner|editor-first=Frank J.|edition=4th|location=Chichester|oclc=723530747|editor-last2=Boli|editor-first2=John}}</ref>

"Globophobia" is used to refer to the fear of globalization, though it can also mean the [[balloon phobia|fear of balloons]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thenation.com/article/beyond-globophobia|title=Beyond Globophobia|last1=Henwood|first1=Doug|date=13 November 2003|work=[[The Nation]]|issn=0027-8378|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029140242/http://www.thenation.com/article/beyond-globophobia|archive-date=29 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Clark|first1=Ross|title=Globophobia|url=http://www.spectator.co.uk/columnists/12049/globophobia-17/|work=[[The Spectator]]|date=20 March 2004|access-date=29 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222124856/http://www.spectator.co.uk/columnists/12049/globophobia-17/|archive-date=22 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="Ritzer2008">{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=XKnmvRATtfAC|page=16}}|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2008|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|editor=Ritzer|editor-first=George|editor-link=George Ritzer|location=Malden|pages=16–|oclc=232611725}}</ref>