Editing Gold mining (section)

==History==
[[File:Miner underground at Pumsaint gold mine (1294028).jpg|thumb|A miner underground at [[Pumsaint]] gold mine, [[Wales]], {{Circa|1938}}]]
[[File:Panorámica de Las Médulas edit.jpg|thumb|Landscape of [[Las Médulas]], Spain, the result of [[hydraulic mining]] on a vast scale by the ancient Romans]]

The exact date that humans first began to mine gold is unknown, but some of the oldest known gold artifacts were found in the [[Varna Necropolis]] in [[Bulgaria]]. The graves of the necropolis were built between 4700 and 4200 BC, indicating that gold mining could be at least 6,724 years old.<ref name="VANBRUUN">{{Cite book|last1=Ivanov|first1=Ivan Simeonov|title=Varna Necropolis: The Dawn of European Civilization. Treasures of Bulgaria 1|last2=Avramova|first2=Mai︠a︡|publisher=Agatʹo Publ|year=2000|location=Sofia}}</ref> During a series of excavations carried out between 1878 and 1992, several graves were found with more than 6&nbsp;kg of gold.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kuleff |first=Ivelin |date=2005 |title=ARCHEOMETRIC INVESTIGATION OF THE GOLD IN THE CHALCOLITHIC NECROPOLIS OF VARNA (5 TH MILLENNIUM BC) |journal=Advances in Bulgarian Science |volume=16 |pages=16–22 |issn=1312-6164}}</ref> A group of German and Georgian archaeologists claims the [[Sakdrisi]] site in southern [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], dating to the 3rd or 4th millennium BC, may be the world's oldest known gold mine.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hauptmann|first=Andreas|author2=Klein, Sabine|title=Bronze Age gold in Southern Georgia|journal=ArcheoSciences|date=2009|volume=33|issue=33|pages=75–82|doi=10.4000/archeosciences.2037|url=http://archeosciences.revues.org/2037?lang=en|doi-access=free|access-date=24 May 2014|archive-date=25 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140525232413/http://archeosciences.revues.org/2037?lang=en|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Ancient times ===

==== Prehistoric period ====
Gold has been prized by most humans since prehistoric times. Archaeological evidence suggests that humans were mining gold as far back as 4000 BCE, with some the earliest known gold artifacts dating back to ancient [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sourcing Mesopotamian Gold {{!}} Research - Penn Museum |url=https://www.penn.museum/research/project.php?pid=49 |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=www.penn.museum}}</ref> Particularly in the region of present-day Iraq, gold was mined extensively. Around 2500 BCE, the ancient [[Sumerians]] developed sophisticated techniques for extracting gold from alluvial deposits and underground mines.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Sumerian Roots of the History of Gold {{!}} U.S. Gold Bureau |url=https://www.usgoldbureau.com/news/importance-gold-history-sumerian-roots |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=www.usgoldbureau.com}}</ref> These techniques included the use of sluice boxes.

===== Ancient Egypt =====
Evidence suggests that [[Nubia]] had sporadic access to gold nuggets during the [[Neolithic]] and [[Prehistoric Egypt|Prehistoric period]].<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal |last1=Klemm |first1=Dietrich |last2=Klemm |first2=Rosemarie |last3=Murr |first3=Andreas |date=2001 |title=Gold of the Pharaohs – 6000 years of gold mining in Egypt and Nubia |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S089953620100094X |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3–4 |pages=643–659 |doi=10.1016/S0899-5362(01)00094-X|bibcode=2001JAfES..33..643K |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Gold mining in Egypt involved both surface mining, such as panning for gold in riverbeads, and underground mining, where tunnels were dug to extract gold-bearing quartz veins.<ref name=":21" /> During the [[Bronze Age]], sites in the [[Eastern Desert]] became a great source of gold mining for nomadic Nubians, who used two-hand [[mallet]]s and grinding
[[Extractive metallurgy|ore extraction]]. By the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]], the oval mallet was introduced for mining. By the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]], stone mortars to process ores and a new gold-washing technique were introduced. During the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]], Nubian mining expanded under [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] occupation with the invention of the [[Mill (grinding)|grinding mill]].<ref name=":21" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Klemm |first1=Rosemarie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ky8bVJ_fYEAC |title=Gold and Gold Mining in Ancient Egypt and Nubia: Geoarchaeology of the Ancient Gold Mining Sites in the Egyptian and Sudanese Eastern Deserts |last2=Klemm |first2=Dietrich |date=2012-12-13 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-642-22508-6 |pages=3–9 |language=en}}</ref>

Gold was associated with the sun god [[Ra]] and was believed to be eternal and indestructible, symbolising the pharaoh's divine power and afterlife.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Botros |first=N.S. |date=2015 |title=Gold in Egypt: Does the future get worse or better? |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S016913681400345X |journal=Ore Geology Reviews |language=en |volume=67 |pages=189–207 |doi=10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.11.018|bibcode=2015OGRv...67..189B |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Gold has also been found in the tombs of [[Tutankhamun]] and other pharaohs.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The art and culture of ancient Egypt: studies in honor of Dorothea Arnold |date=2015 |publisher=The Egyptological Seminar of New York |isbn=978-0-9816120-2-7 |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=Dorothea |series=Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar |location=New York, NY |editor-last2=Oppenheim |editor-first2=Adela |editor-last3=Goelet |editor-first3=Ogden}}</ref>

===== Ancient Rome and Greece =====
During the Bronze Age, gold objects were also plentiful, especially in Ireland and Spain.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gold of Roman Empire - History of Roman Gold Jewellery {{!}} My Gold Guide |url=https://www.mygoldguide.in/significance-gold-roman-empire |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=www.mygoldguide.in}}</ref> [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] employed slave labour and used [[hydraulic mining]] methods, such as [[hushing]] and [[ground sluicing]] on a large scale to extract gold from extensive [[alluvial]] (loose sediment) deposits, such as those at [[Las Médulas|Las Medulas]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bernstein |first=Peter L. |title=The power of gold: the history of an obsession |date=2012 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-25210-8 |location=Hoboken, N.J}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/on1157153560 |title=Debasement: manipulation of coin standards in pre-modern monetary systems |date=2020 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-78925-398-6 |editor-last=Butcher |editor-first=Kevin |edition= |location=Oxford; Philadelphia |oclc=on1157153560}}</ref> Mining was under the control of the state, but the mines may have been leased to civilian contractors later. Gold served as the primary medium of exchange within the empire, and was an important motive in the [[Roman conquest of Britain]] by [[Claudius]] in the first century AD, although there is only one known Roman gold mine at [[Dolaucothi]] in west Wales. Gold was a prime motivation for the campaign in [[Dacia]] when the Romans invaded [[Transylvania]] in what is now modern [[Romania]] in the second century AD. The legions were led by the emperor Trajan, and their exploits are shown on [[Trajan's Column]] in Rome and the several reproductions of the column elsewhere (such as the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] in [[London]]).<ref>Dan Oancea, [http://www.infomine.com/publications/docs/Mining.com/Apr2008h.pdf A Tale of Gold] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230636/http://www.infomine.com/publications/docs/Mining.com/Apr2008h.pdf|date=3 March 2016}}</ref> Under the Eastern Roman Empire Emperor Justinian's rule, gold was mined in the Balkans, Anatolia, Armenia, Egypt, and Nubia.

===== Ancient Asia =====
In the area of the [[Kolar Gold Fields]] in [[Bangarpet Taluk]], [[Kolar district]] of [[Karnataka]] state, India; gold was first mined prior to the 2nd and 3rd century AD by digging small pits. Golden objects found in [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]] have been traced to Kolar through the analysis of impurities{{snd}}the impurities include 11% [[silver]] concentration, found only in KGF ore.{{Citation needed|date=July 2013}} The Champion reef at the [[Kolar gold fields]] was mined to a depth of {{convert|50|m|ft}} during the [[Gupta period]] in the fifth century AD. During the [[Chola Empire|Chola]] period in the 9th and 10th century AD, the scale of the operation grew.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} The metal continued to be mined by the eleventh-century kings of South India, the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] from 1336 to 1560, and later by [[Tipu Sultan]], the king of [[Mysore]] state and the British. It is estimated that the total gold production in Karnataka to date is 1000 tons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/K-hertage.htm|title=The Golden Heritage of Karnataka |work=ernet.in|access-date=3 April 2015|archive-date=18 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191118115109/http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/K-hertage.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:De Re Metallica 1556 p 158 AQ23 (2).TIF|thumb|left|Late 15th and early 16th century mining techniques, ''De re metallica''|upright=0.6]]

The mining of the Hungarian deposit (present-day Slovakia) primarily around [[Kremnica]] was the largest of the [[Medieval period]] in Europe.<ref name="Postan & Miller">{{Citation |author1=M M Postan |author2=E Miller |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSia_4PpeqQC&q=Philip+IV+first+gold+coinage&pg=PR1|title=The Cambridge Economic History of Europe: Trade and industry in the Middle Ages|orig-year=1967 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year= 1987|isbn=0521087090 }}</ref>

===== Ancient South America =====
In South America, gold mining in the [[Andes]] dates back thousands of years, with the [[Inca Empire|Inca]] empire employing extensive gold mining operations in regions such as present-day [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]].<ref name=":23">{{Cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Incas |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-021935-2 |editor-last=Alconini Mujica |editor-first=Sonia |series=Oxford handbooks |location=New York, NY |editor-last2=Covey |editor-first2=Alan}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite journal |last1=Cuadra |first1=W. A. |last2=Dunkerley |first2=P. M. |date=1991-10-01 |title=A history of gold in Chile |url=http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/economicgeology/article/86/6/1155/20927/A-history-of-gold-in-Chile |journal=Economic Geology |language=en |volume=86 |issue=6 |pages=1155–1173 |doi=10.2113/gsecongeo.86.6.1155 |bibcode=1991EcGeo..86.1155C |issn=1554-0774|url-access=subscription }}</ref> They used stone tools and simple mining techniques to extract gold from rivers, streams, and surface deposits.<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":24" />

=== Middle Ages: European gold rushes ===
During the Middle Ages, Europe experienced several gold rushes, most notably in regions like Transylvania, Scotland, and Wales. These were often small-scale and localised, compared to later rushes in history.

==== Transylvania ====
A gold rush took place in the Kingdom of Hungary (present-day [[Romania]]), primarily in the region of [[Transylvania]] during the medieval period. Transylvania was known for its rich mineral resources including gold, silver, and other metals.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jameson |first1=John H. |title=Creating participatory dialogue in archaeological and cultural heritage interpretation: multinational perspectives |last2=Baugher |first2=Sherene |date=2022 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-81957-6 |edition=1st ed. 2022 |location=Cham}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-12 |title=Romania Backtracks on Bid to Protect Roman Gold Mine in Transylvania |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/romania-gold-mining-fight-rosia-montana-unesco |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=Environment |language=en}}</ref> Miners in Transylvania used both surface and underground mining techniques to extract gold from alluvial deposits and veins. These methods included panning, sluicing, and rudimentary shaft mining.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Networks of trade in raw materials and technological innovations in prehistory and protohistory, Volume 12/session B34: an archaeometry approach |date=2016 |publisher=Archaeopress Archaeology |isbn=978-1-78491-424-0 |editor-last=Delfino |editor-first=Davide |series=Proceedings of the XVII UISPP World Congress |location=Oxford |editor-last2=Piccardo |editor-first2=Paolo |editor-last3=Baptista |editor-first3=João Carlos}}</ref>

==== Scotland ====
The [[Kildonan Gold Rush|Scottish gold rush]] occurred in [[Scotland]], primarily in the Highlands during the 16th and 17th century. Gold deposits were discovered in rivers and streams, leading to a surge in prospecting and mining activity.<ref name=":25">{{Cite book |last1=Callender |first1=R. M. |title=The Scottish gold rush of 1869 |last2=Reeson |first2=Patrick F. |date=2008 |publisher=The Northern Mine Research Society |isbn=978-0-901450-63-0 |series=British mining |location=Sheffield, Yorkshire}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Laurenson |first=Sarah |date=2016-05-03 |title=Material landscapes: the production and consumption of men's jewellery during the Scottish gold rush of 1869 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2373518X.2016.1204865 |journal=History of Retailing and Consumption |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=129–142 |doi=10.1080/2373518X.2016.1204865 |issn=2373-518X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The [[Scottish Crown Estate Act 2019|Scottish Crown]] took an interest in gold discoveries, in hopes of aiding the kingdom's economy and revenue. King [[James IV of Scotland]] established a royal mint to produce gold coins from Scottish gold. The Scottish gold rush eventually waned due to a combination of factors including the depletion of easily accessible gold deposits, harsh weather conditions, and the political instability at the time.<ref name=":25" />

==== Wales ====
A gold rush occurred in [[Wales]], in the [[Dolgellau]] area of [[Gwynedd]], during the 19th century.<ref name=":26">{{Cite web |last=Lo |first=Chris |date=2018-07-23 |title=Dragon's hoard: the allure of Welsh gold |url=https://www.mining-technology.com/features/dragons-hoard-allure-welsh-gold/ |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=Mining Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> Gold deposits were discovered in Welsh mountains, with reports of gold being found in the [[Afon Mawddach|Mawddach]] and [[Afon Tryweryn|Tryweryn]] rivers. By the mid-19th century, commercial mining operations had begun. Wales' gold gained popularity for its quality and rarity, leading to its use in royal jewelry for the [[British royal family]].<ref name=":26" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-04-27 |title=Welsh gold wedding ring continues royal tradition |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-south-west-wales-13196514 |access-date=2024-04-11 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== Modern era ===

==== California gold rush ====
During the 19th century, numerous [[gold rush]]es in remote regions around the globe caused large migrations of miners, such as the [[California Gold Rush]] of 1849. This is one of the most famous gold rushes in history. The discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in California sparked a massive migration of people from around the world to California in search of gold. The rush significantly accelerated westward expansion in the United States and had profound effects on the region's economy and society.

==== Australian gold rushes ====
The [[Australian gold rushes|gold rushes in AUstralia]] began in 1851 when [[Edward Hargraves]], a prospector, discovered gold near [[Bathurst, New South Wales|Bathhurst]], [[New South Wales]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian Gold Rush Begins |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/australian-gold-rush-begins |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |language=en}}</ref> The most well known gold rush in Australia was the [[Victorian gold rush]]. Thousands of people, known as 'diggers', came from around the world to Australia in search of gold, which ultimately contributed to the growth of cities like [[Melbourne]] and [[Sydney]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Australians, historical statistics |date=1987 |publisher=Fairfax, Syme & Weldon Associates |isbn=978-0-949288-29-5 |editor-last=Vamplew |editor-first=Wray |series=Australians, a historical library |location=Broadway, N.S.W., Australia}}</ref>

==== South African gold rush ====
The discovery of gold in the [[Witwatersrand]] led to the [[Second Boer War]] and ultimately the founding of South Africa.<ref name=":27">{{Cite journal |last1=Richardson |first1=Peter |last2=van Helten |first2=Jean-Jacques |date=1984 |title=The Development of the South African Gold-Mining Industry, 1895-1918 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2597284 |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=319 |doi=10.2307/2597284|jstor=2597284 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> This transformed the region into one of the wealthiest gold-producing areas in the world. This rush played a crucial role in the development of South Africa's economy and led to the establishment of Johannesburg, known as the 'city of gold'.<ref name=":27" /><ref name=":28">{{Cite book |last=Fetherling |first=George |title=The gold crusades: a social history of gold rushes, 1849-1929 |date=1997 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-8046-2 |edition= |location=Toronto}}</ref> Gold-bearing reefs in the neighbouring [[Free State (province)|Free State]] province were found shortly thereafter, driving significant development in the region with the establishment of the [[Free State goldfields]].<ref name=":27" /><ref name=":28" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=A global history of gold rushes |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-29454-7 |editor-last=Mountford |editor-first=Benjamin |series=California world history library |location=Oakland, California |editor-last2=Tuffnell |editor-first2=Stephen}}</ref>
[[File:Chilkoot Pass summit.jpg|thumb|The Chilkoot Pass where Klondikers would establish themselves and their supplies.]]

==== Klondike Gold Rush ====
Also known as the [[Klondike Gold Rush|Yukon Gold Rush]], this brought prospectors from around the world to the [[Klondike, Yukon|Klondike]] region of the [[Yukon]] territory in [[Canada]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morrison |first=W.R. |date=1974 |title=The North-West Mounted Police and the Klondike Gold Rush |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002200947400900204 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=93–105 |doi=10.1177/002200947400900204 |issn=0022-0094|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/712115576 |title=Eldorado! the archaeology of gold mining in the far North |date=2011 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press; Society for Historical Archaeology |isbn=978-0-8032-1099-8 |editor-last=Spude |editor-first=Catherine Holder |series=Historical archaeology of the American West |location=Lincoln : [Rockville, Md.] |oclc=712115576 |editor-last2=Society for Historical Archaeology}}</ref> The Klondike Gold Rush began in 1896, when gold was discovered in [[Bonanza Creek]], a tributary of the Klondike River by [[George Carmack]] and his Indigenous companions, [[Skookum Jim Mason]] and [[Tagish Charlie]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilkie |first=Rab |title=Skookum Jim: Native and Non-Native Stories and Views About His Life and Times and the Klondike Gold Rush |date=1992 |publisher=Heritage Branch, Department of Tourism, Government of the Yukon}}</ref> As prospectors arrived in Klondike, makeshift towns and settlements sprang up along the rivers, including [[Dawson City]], which because the largest town in Yukon at the height of the gold rush.<ref name="nps.gov">{{Cite web |title=What Was the Klondike Gold Rush? - Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/klgo/learn/goldrush.htm |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=www.nps.gov |language=en}}</ref> Prospectors employed various mining techniques to extract gold from the Klondike's streams and riverbeds, including placer mining, dredging, and hydraulic mining.<ref name="nps.gov"/>

==== The Carlin Trend ====
The [[Carlin Unconformity|Carlin Trend]] of Nevada, U.S., was discovered in 1961. Official estimates indicate that total world gold production since the beginning of civilization has been around {{convert|6352216000|ozt|t}} and total [[Gold mining in Nevada|gold production in Nevada]] is 1.1% of that, ranking Nevada as one of the Earth's primary gold-producing regions.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Much Gold Has Been Mined? |url=https://www.gold.org/about-gold/gold-supply/gold-mining/how-much-gold-has-been-mined |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929224149/https://www.gold.org/about-gold/gold-supply/gold-mining/how-much-gold-has-been-mined |archive-date=29 September 2018 |access-date=2021-11-26 |website=www.gold.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Dan Oancea – Carlin: Where the Train Stops and the Gold Rush Begins |url=http://www.infomine.com/publications/docs/Mining.com/Jul2008e.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102253/http://www.infomine.com/publications/docs/Mining.com/Jul2008e.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=5 May 2013}}</ref>