Editing Head of state (section)

==Constitutional models==
{{more citations needed section|date=November 2012}}
[[File:Bratislava-grassalkovičov palác.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Grassalkovich Palace]] in [[Bratislava]] is the seat of the [[president of Slovakia]].]]

Some academic writers discuss [[State (polity)|state]]s and [[Forms of government|governments]] in terms of "models".<ref>{{cite web|editor=Nicolaidis and Weatherill |title=Whose Europe? National Models and the Constitution of the European Union|year=2003|url=http://denning.law.ox.ac.uk/themes/iecl/pdfs/whoseeurope.pdf|access-date=23 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617084528/http://denning.law.ox.ac.uk/themes/iecl/pdfs/whoseeurope.pdf|archive-date=17 June 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https%253A%252F%252Fscholar.google.co.uk%252Fscholar%253Fq%253DThe%2520Managerial%2520Constitution%253A%2520The%2520Convergence%2520of%2520Constitutional%2520and%2520Corporate%2520Governance%2520Models&amp=&hl=ar&amp=&as_sdt=0&amp=&as_vis=1&amp=&oi=scholart&amp=&httpsredir=1&amp=&article=1130&amp=&context=yls_sela&amp=&sei-redir=1#search=%22Managerial%20Constitution%3A%20Convergence%20Constitutional%20Corporate%20Governance%20Models%22|title=The Managerial Constitution: The Convergence of Constitutional and Corporate Governance Models|last=Gouvea|first=C. P.|year=2013|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2288315 |ssrn=2288315 |website=digitalcommons.law.yale.edu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818035818/https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https%253A%252F%252Fscholar.google.co.uk%252Fscholar%253Fq%253DThe%2520Managerial%2520Constitution%253A%2520The%2520Convergence%2520of%2520Constitutional%2520and%2520Corporate%2520Governance%2520Models&amp=&hl=ar&amp=&as_sdt=0&amp=&as_vis=1&amp=&oi=scholart&amp=&httpsredir=1&amp=&article=1130&amp=&context=yls_sela&amp=&sei-redir=1 |archive-date=18 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first= U.|last= Belavusau|title= Freedom of speech: importing European and US constitutional models in transitional democracies|publisher= Routledge|year= 2013|isbn= 9781135071981|url= http://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Belavusau-Uladzislau/Freedom-of-speech-importing-European-and-US-constitutiona/9781135071981|access-date= 23 December 2014|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141223132543/http://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Belavusau-Uladzislau/Freedom-of-speech-importing-European-and-US-constitutiona/9781135071981|archive-date= 23 December 2014|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Heinz |last=Klug|title=Postcolonial Collages: Distributions of Power and Constitutional Models, With Special Reference to South Africa|journal=International Sociology|volume=18|issue=1|pages=114–131|doi=10.1177/0268580903018001007|date=March 2003|s2cid=144612269}}</ref>

An independent [[nation state]] normally has a head of state, and determines the extent of its head's executive powers of government or formal representational functions.<ref name=Watts:0>[[#Watts2010|Watts]].</ref> In terms of [[Protocol (diplomacy)|protocol]]: the head of a [[sovereignty|sovereign]], independent state is usually identified as the person who, according to that state's constitution, is the reigning [[monarch]], in the case of a [[monarchy]]; or the president, in the case of a [[republic]].

Among the state [[constitution]]s (fundamental laws) that establish different political systems, four major types of heads of state can be distinguished:

# The [[parliamentary system]], with two subset models;
## The ''standard model'', in which the head of state, in theory, possesses key executive powers, but such power is exercised on the binding advice of a [[head of government]] (e.g. [[United Kingdom]], [[India]], [[Germany]]).
## The ''non-executive model'', in which the head of state has either none or very limited executive powers, and mainly has a ceremonial and symbolic role (e.g. [[Sweden]], [[Japan]], [[Israel]]).
# The [[semi-presidential system]], in which the head of state shares key executive powers with a head of government or cabinet (e.g. [[Russia]], [[France]], [[Sri Lanka]]); and
# The [[presidential system]], in which the head of state is also the head of government and has all executive powers (e.g. [[United States]], [[Indonesia]], [[South Korea]]).

In a federal constituent or a dependent territory, the same role is fulfilled by the holder of an office corresponding to that of a head of state. For example, in each [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian province]] the role is fulfilled by the [[lieutenant governor (Canada)|lieutenant governor]], whereas in most [[British Overseas Territories]] the powers and duties are performed by the [[British Overseas Territories#Head of State|governor]]. The same applies to [[Governors of the Australian states|Australian states]], [[Governors of states of India|Indian states]], etc. [[Hong Kong]]'s constitutional document, the [[Hong Kong Basic Law|Basic Law]], for example, specifies the [[Chief Executive (Hong Kong)|chief executive]] as the head of the special administrative region, in addition to their role as the head of government. These non-sovereign-state heads, nevertheless, have a restricted or negligible role in diplomatic affairs, depending on the status and the norms and practices of the territories concerned.

===Parliamentary system===<!-- This section is linked from [[Austria]] -->
{{Original research section|date=November 2024}}
[[File:Forms of government parliamentary.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|World's parliamentary states (as of {{CURRENTYEAR}}):<br />{{small|{{color box|#6EBA6B}} Republics with an executive president elected by a parliament<br />{{color box|#FF9631}} Parliamentary republics<br />{{color box|#E45453}} Parliamentary constitutional monarchies in which the monarch usually exercises power only on government advice<br />{{color box|#E0E0E0}} Presidential republics, one-party states, and other forms of government}}]]

====Standard model====
In [[parliamentary system]]s the head of state may be merely the nominal [[chief executive officer]], heading the [[executive branch]] of the state, and possessing limited executive power. In reality, however, following a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually only exercised by direction of a [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]], presided over by a [[head of government]] who is answerable to the legislature. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has a majority support in the [[legislature]] (or, at least, not a majority opposition – a subtle but important difference). It also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of [[Forms of government|government]] and their cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. The [[Responsible government|executive branch is thus said to be responsible]] (or answerable) to the legislature, with the head of government and cabinet in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional [[Advice (constitutional)|advice]] to the head of state.

[[File:King Harald V 2021.jpg|left|thumb|King [[Harald V]] of [[Norway]]]]
In parliamentary [[Constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchies]], the legitimacy of the unelected head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. Accordingly, at the time of the [[Glorious Revolution]], the [[Parliament of England|English parliament]] acted of its own authority to name a new king and queen (the joint monarchs [[Mary II of England|Mary II]] and [[William III of England|William III]]); likewise, [[Edward VIII]]'s abdication required the approval of each of the six independent realms of which he was monarch. In monarchies with a written constitution, the position of monarch is created under the constitution and could be abolished through a democratic procedure of constitutional amendment. In many cases there are significant procedural hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in the [[Constitution of Spain]]).

In republics with a parliamentary system (such as India, Germany, Austria, Italy and Israel), the head of state is usually titled ''[[President (government title)|president]]'' and the principal functions of such presidents are mainly ceremonial and symbolic, as opposed to the presidents in a presidential or semi-presidential system.

In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. Usually, the king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament.

For example, under the 1848 constitution of the [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Kingdom of Sardinia]], and then the [[Kingdom of Italy]], the ''[[Statuto Albertino]]''—the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, but not required by law.

Examples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than usual, either because of ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include the decision by King [[Leopold III of Belgium|Leopold III of the Belgians]] to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading [[German Army (1935–1945)|German army]] in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After [[World War II]], Belgium voted in a referendum to allow him to resume his monarchical powers and duties, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.) The Belgian constitutional crisis in 1990, when the [[Baudouin of Belgium|head of state]] refused to sign into law a bill permitting abortion, was resolved by the cabinet assuming the power to promulgate the law while he was treated as "unable to reign" for twenty-four hours.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/05/world/belgian-king-unable-to-sign-abortion-law-takes-day-off.html|title=Belgian King, Unable to Sign Abortion Law, Takes Day Off|date=5 April 1990|work=The New York Times|access-date=8 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321121749/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/05/world/belgian-king-unable-to-sign-abortion-law-takes-day-off.html|archive-date=21 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Art. 93. "Should the King find himself unable to reign, the ministers, having observed this inability, immediately summon the Chambers. Regency and guardianship are to be provided by the united Chambers." ''The Constitution of Belgium, Coordinated text of 14 February 1994 (last updated 8 May 2007)''{{cite web |url=http://home.scarlet.be/dirkvanheule/compcons/ConstitutionBelgium/ConstitutionBelgium.htm |title=Constitution of Belgium |access-date=10 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601055805/http://home.scarlet.be/dirkvanheule/compcons/ConstitutionBelgium/ConstitutionBelgium.htm |archive-date=1 June 2013 }}</ref>

====Non-executive model====
{{multiple image
| width             = 150
| footer            = Two contemporary heads of state who are [[Constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchs]], but with no political power: King [[Norodom Sihamoni]] of Cambodia (left), and King [[Felipe VI of Spain]] (right).
| image1            = King Norodom Sihamoni (2019).jpg
| image2            = Felipe VI in 2023.jpg
}}

These officials are excluded completely from the executive: they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state [[Style (manner of address)|styles]] of ''His/Her Majesty's Government'' or ''His/Her Excellency's Government''. Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist.

The {{nihongo|[[Constitution of Japan]]|日本国憲法|Nihonkoku-Kenpō}} was drawn up under the [[Occupation of Japan|Allied occupation]] that followed [[World War II]] and was intended to replace the previous [[Militarism|militaristic]] and quasi-[[absolute monarchy]] system with a form of liberal democracy [[parliamentary system]]. The constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the [[Cabinet of Japan|Cabinet]], who is chaired by the [[Prime Minister of Japan|prime minister]] (articles 65 and 66) and responsible to the [[National Diet|Diet]] (articles 67 and 69). The [[Emperor of Japan|emperor]] is defined in the constitution as "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people" (article 1), and is generally recognised throughout the world as the Japanese head of state. Although the emperor formally [[Imperial Investiture|appoints]] the prime minister to office, article 6 of the constitution requires him to appoint the candidate "as designated by the Diet", without any right to decline appointment. He is a ceremonial [[figurehead]] with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan.<ref name=unprotocol>[https://www.un.int/protocol/sites/www.un.int/files/Protocol%20and%20Liaison%20Service/hspmfm.pdf HEADS OF STATE, HEADS OF GOVERNMENT, MINISTERS FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825170600/https://www.un.int/protocol/sites/www.un.int/files/Protocol%20and%20Liaison%20Service/hspmfm.pdf |date=25 August 2016 }}, Protocol and Liaison Service, United Nations (8 April 2016). Retrieved on 15 April 2016.</ref><ref name=japan/><ref>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/colombia/ Japan]  in [[The World Factbook]], [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.</ref>

Since the passage in [[Sweden]] of the [[Instrument of Government (1974)|1974 Instrument of Government]], the [[Monarchy of Sweden|Swedish monarch]] no longer has many of the standard parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to him or her, as was the case in the preceding [[Instrument of Government (1809)|1809 Instrument of Government]]. Today, the [[speaker of the Riksdag]] appoints (following a vote in the [[Riksdag]]) the [[Prime Minister of Sweden|prime minister]] and terminates their commission following a [[vote of no confidence]] or voluntary resignation. Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. Laws and ordinances are promulgated by two Cabinet members in unison signing "On Behalf of the Government" and the government—not the monarch—is the [[high contracting party]] with respect to international treaties. The remaining official functions of the sovereign, by constitutional mandate or by unwritten convention, are to open the annual session of the Riksdag, receive foreign ambassadors and sign the [[Letter of credence|letters of credence]] for Swedish ambassadors, chair the foreign advisory committee, preside at the special Cabinet council when a new prime minister takes office, and to be kept informed by the prime minister on matters of state.<ref name="sweden ig"/><ref>[http://www.kungahuset.se/royalcourt/monarchy/themonarchyinsweden/dutiesofthemonarch.4.396160511584257f2180003302.html Duties of the Monarch] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316041821/http://www.kungahuset.se/royalcourt/monarchy/themonarchyinsweden/dutiesofthemonarch.4.396160511584257f2180003302.html |date=16 March 2015 }}, [[Royal Court of Sweden]]. Retrieved on 1 November 2012.</ref>

In contrast, the only contact the [[president of Ireland]] has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the [[taoiseach]] (head of government) to the president. However, the president has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the [[Department of the Taoiseach]]. The president does, however, hold limited [[reserve powers]], such as referring a bill to the [[Supreme Court of Ireland|Supreme Court]] to test its constitutionality, which are used under the president's discretion.<ref name=ireland/>

The most extreme non-executive republican head of state is the [[president of Israel]], which holds no reserve powers whatsoever.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of Israel |url=https://knesset.gov.il/constitution/ConstMJewishState.htm}}</ref> The least ceremonial powers held by the president are to provide a mandate to attempt to form a government, to approve the dissolution of the [[Knesset]] made by the prime minister, and to pardon criminals or to commute their sentence.

====Executive model====

Some parliamentary republics (like [[South Africa]], [[Botswana]] and [[Kiribati]]) have fused the roles of the head of state with the head of government (like in a presidential system), while having the sole executive officer, often called a president, being dependent on the Parliament's confidence to rule (like in a parliamentary system). While also being the leading symbol of the nation, the president in this system acts mostly as a prime minister since the incumbent must be a member of the legislature at the time of the election, answer [[question time|question sessions]] in Parliament, avoid motions of no confidence, etc.

===Semi-presidential systems===
[[File:De Gaulle-OWI.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Charles de Gaulle]], President and head of state of the [[French Fifth Republic]] (1959–1969)]]
{{Main|Semi-presidential system}}
Semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably (in the president-parliamentary subtype) a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The [[Constitution of France|constitution]] of the [[Fifth French Republic]] provides for a [[Prime Minister of France|prime minister]] who is chosen by the president, but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]]. Should a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from the opposition to become prime minister, a process known as [[Cohabitation (government)|Cohabitation]]. President [[François Mitterrand]], a Socialist, for example, was forced to cohabit with the [[Gaullism|neo-Gaullist]] (right wing) [[Jacques Chirac]], who became his prime minister from 1986 to 1988. In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the president is often allowed to set the policy agenda in security and foreign affairs and the prime minister runs the domestic and economic agenda.

Other countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system.The [[Weimar Constitution|constitution]] of the [[Weimar Republic]], for example, provided for a popularly elected [[President of Germany (1919–1945)|president]] with theoretically dominant executive powers that were intended to be exercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from the [[Reichstag (Weimar Republic)|Reichstag]], which was expected, in normal circumstances, to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially, the president was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant; however, persistent political instability, in which governments often lasted only a few months, led to a change in the power structure of the republic, with the president's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that the German president, [[Paul von Hindenburg]], was able to dismiss a [[Chancellor of Germany#First German Republic (Weimar Republic, 1919–1933)|chancellor]] and select his own person for the job, even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently, President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint [[Adolf Hitler]] as Chancellor without consulting the Reichstag.
{{clear}}

===Presidential system===
[[File:Gilbert Stuart - George Washington (Lansdowne Portrait) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|[[George Washington]], the first [[president of the United States]], set the precedent for an executive head of state in republican systems of government<ref>Lifetime portrait (1796), known as the "[[Lansdowne portrait]]", includes spines of two books titled "American Revolution" and "Constitution and Laws of the United States".</ref>]]
{{Main|Presidential system}}

''Note: The head of state in a "presidential" system may not actually hold the title of "[[President (government title)|president]]" - the name of the system refers to any head of state who actually governs and is not directly dependent on the [[legislature]] to remain in office.''

Some constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not only in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is known as a "presidential system" and sometimes called the "imperial model", because the executive officials of the government are answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive accountability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the [[United States|United States of America]]). In this case the debate centers on confirming them into office, not removing them from office, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members ''en bloc'', so accountability does not operate in the same sense understood as a parliamentary system.

[[Presidential system]]s are a notable feature of constitutions in the [[Americas]], including those of [[President of Argentina|Argentina]], [[President of Brazil|Brazil]], [[President of Colombia|Colombia]], [[President of El Salvador|El Salvador]], [[President of Mexico|Mexico]] and [[President of Venezuela|Venezuela]]; this is generally attributed to the strong influence of the [[United States]] in the region, and as the [[United States Constitution]] served as an inspiration and model for the [[Spanish American wars of independence|Latin American wars of independence]] of the early 19th century. Most presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election); however, like all other systems, the presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or ''[[coup d'état]]'', as often seen in [[Latin America]]n, [[Middle East]]ern and other presidential regimes. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system, such as a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature can also be found among [[absolute monarchy|absolute monarchies]], [[constitutional monarchy|parliamentary monarchies]] and [[one-party state|single party]] (e.g., [[Communism|Communist]]) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship, their stated constitutional models are applied in name only and not in political theory or practice.

===Single-party states===
In certain states under [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] constitutions of the [[Socialist state|constitutionally socialist state]] type inspired by the former [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] (USSR) and its constitutive [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet republics]], real political power belonged to the sole legal party. In these states, there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the leader of the legislative branch was considered to be the closest common equivalent of a head of state as a [[natural person]]. In the Soviet Union this position carried such titles as ''Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR''; ''Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet''; and in the case of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] ''Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets'' (pre-1922), and ''Chairman of the [[Bureau of the Central Committee]] of the Russian SFSR'' (1956–1966). This position may or may not have been held by the [[de facto]] Soviet leader at the moment. For example, [[Nikita Khrushchev]] never headed the Supreme Soviet but was [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party]] (party leader) and [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Chairman of the Council of Ministers]] ([[head of government]]).

This may even lead to an institutional variability, as in [[North Korea]], where, after the presidency of party leader [[Kim Il Sung]], the office was vacant for years. The late president was granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far Eastern traditions to give posthumous names and titles to royalty) of ''"[[Eternal President of the Republic|Eternal President]]"''. All substantive power, as party leader, itself not formally created for four years, was inherited by his son [[Kim Jong Il]]. The post of president was formally replaced on 5 September 1998, for ceremonial purposes, by the office of [[President of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly]], while the party leader's post as [[chairman of the National Defense Commission]] was simultaneously declared "the highest post of the state", not unlike [[Deng Xiaoping]] earlier in the [[China|People's Republic of China]].

In [[China]], under the current [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|country's constitution]], the [[President of the People's Republic of China|Chinese president]] is a largely [[Figurehead|ceremonial office]] with limited power.<ref>{{cite news |title = Ending Term Limits for China's Xi Is a Big Deal. Here's Why. - Is the presidency powerful in China? |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/10/world/asia/china-xi-jinping-term-limit-explainer.html |date = 10 March 2018 |work = [[The New York Times]] |author1=Chris Buckley |author2=Adam Wu |quote = In China, the political job that matters most is the General Secretary of the Communist Party. The party controls the military and domestic security forces, and sets the policies that the government carries out. China's presidency lacks the authority of the American and French presidencies. |access-date = 28 September 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180312103512/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/10/world/asia/china-xi-jinping-term-limit-explainer.html |archive-date = 12 March 2018 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>[http://www.kkhsou.in/main/polscience/structure_function.html Krishna Kanta Handique State Open University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502002431/http://www.kkhsou.in/main/polscience/structure_function.html |date=2 May 2014 }}, EXECUTIVE: THE PRESIDENT OF THE CHINESE REPUBLIC.</ref> However, since 1993, as a matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by the [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]],<ref>{{cite news |url = https://multimedia.scmp.com/widgets/china/cpc-primer/ |title = A simple guide to the Chinese government |newspaper = [[South China Morning Post]] |quote = [[Xi Jinping]] is the most powerful figure in the Chinese political system. He is the President of China, but his real influence comes from his position as the [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]]. |access-date = 28 September 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180513080847/https://multimedia.scmp.com/widgets/china/cpc-primer/ |archive-date = 13 May 2018 |url-status = live }}</ref> the [[Paramount leader|top leader]] in the [[One-party state|one party system]].<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-politics/china-sets-stage-for-xi-to-stay-in-office-indefinitely-idUSKCN1G906W |title = China sets stage for Xi to stay in office indefinitely |work = [[Reuters]] |date = 25 February 2018 |quote = However, the role of party chief is more senior than that of president. At some point, Xi could be given a party position that also enables him to stay on as long as he likes. |access-date = 28 September 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180226082043/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-politics/china-sets-stage-for-xi-to-stay-in-office-indefinitely-idUSKCN1G906W |archive-date = 26 February 2018 |url-status = live }}</ref> The presidency is officially regarded as [[Government of the People's Republic of China|an institution of the state]] rather than an administrative post; theoretically, the president serves at the pleasure of the [[National People's Congress]], the legislature, and is not legally vested to take executive action on its own prerogative.{{NoteTag|It is listed as such in the current Constitution; it is thus equivalent to organs such as the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|State Council]], rather than to offices such as that of the [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]].}}

===Complications with categorisation===
[[File:Delhi durbar 1911 2.jpg|thumb|[[George V]], Emperor of India, and Empress Mary at the [[Delhi Durbar]], 1911.]]

While clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice.

Constitutional change in [[Liechtenstein]] in 2003 gave its head of state, the [[Prince of Liechtenstein|Reigning Prince]], constitutional powers that included a veto over legislation and power to dismiss the [[List of heads of government of Liechtenstein|head of government]] and cabinet.<ref name=liechtenstein>[http://www.icla.up.ac.za/images/un/use-of-force/western-europe-others/Liechtenstein/Constitution%20Liechtenstein%202009.pdf Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein (LR 101)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808053816/http://www.icla.up.ac.za/images/un/use-of-force/western-europe-others/Liechtenstein/Constitution%20Liechtenstein%202009.pdf |date=8 August 2014 }} (2009). Retrieved on 3 August 2014.</ref> It could be argued that the strengthening of the Prince's powers, vis-a-vis the [[Landtag of Liechtenstein|Landtag]] (legislature), has moved Liechtenstein into the semi-presidential category. Similarly the original powers given to the [[List of Presidents of Greece|Greek President]] under the [[Constitution of Greece|1974 Hellenic Republic constitution]] moved [[Greece]] closer to the French semi-presidential model.

Another complication exists with [[South Africa]], in which the [[President of South Africa|president]] is in fact elected by the [[National Assembly of South Africa|National Assembly]] ([[legislature]]) and is thus similar, in principle, to a [[head of government]] in a [[parliamentary system]] but is also, in addition, recognised as the head of state.<ref name="south africa">[http://www.justice.gov.za/legislation/constitution/SAConstitution-web-eng.pdf Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425031318/http://www.justice.gov.za/legislation/constitution/SAConstitution-web-eng.pdf |date=25 April 2014 }}, [[Department of Justice and Constitutional Development]] (2009). Retrieved on 3 August 2014.</ref> The offices of [[president of Nauru]] and [[president of Botswana]] are similar in this respect to the South African presidency.<ref name=unprotocol/><ref name=botswana>[http://www.botswanaembassy.org/files/constitution_of_botswana.pdf Constitution of Botswana] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123094902/http://www.botswanaembassy.org/files/constitution_of_botswana.pdf |date=23 January 2013 }}, [[Embassy of Botswana in Washington, D.C.|Embassy of the Republic of Botswana in Washington DC]]. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.</ref><ref name=nauru>[http://www.naurugov.nr/parliament/constitution.html THE CONSTITUTION OF NAURU] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201205104/http://www.naurugov.nr/parliament/constitution.html |date=1 February 2014 }}, [[Parliament of Nauru]]. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.</ref>

[[Panama]], during the military dictatorships of [[Omar Torrijos]] and [[Manuel Noriega]], was nominally a presidential republic. However, the [[List of heads of state of Panama|elected civilian presidents]] were effectively figureheads with real political power being exercised by the chief of the [[Panamanian Public Forces|Panamanian Defense Forces]].

Historically, at the time of the [[League of Nations]] (1920–1946) and the founding of the [[United Nations]] (1945), [[British India|India's]] head of state was the monarch of the United Kingdom, ruling directly or indirectly as [[Emperor of India]] through the [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy and Governor-General of India]].