Editing Hope (section)

==In psychology==
[[File:Assistants and George Frederic Watts - Hope - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Hope (Watts)|Hope]]'', which lay at the bottom of the box, remained. Allegorical painting by [[George Frederic Watts]], 1886]]

American professor of psychology [[Barbara Fredrickson]] argues that hope comes into its own when [[crisis]] looms, opening us to new creative possibilities.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Fredrickson |first=Barbara L. |url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/positivity/200903/why-choose-hope |title=Why Choose Hope? |magazine=Psychology Today |date=2009-03-23 |access-date=2012-10-02}}</ref> Frederickson argues that with great need comes an unusually wide range of ideas, as well as such positive emotions as happiness and joy, courage, and empowerment, drawn from four different areas of one's self: from a cognitive, psychological, social, or physical perspective.<ref>{{cite web|author=Fredrickson, Barbara L., et al. (2008)|title=Open Hearts Build Lives: Positive Emotions, Induced Through Loving-Kindness Meditation, Build Consequential Personal Resources|publisher=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, pp. 1045–1062|url=http://psycnet.apa.org.suproxy.su.edu/journals/psp/95/5/1045.pdf|access-date=2012-10-02|archive-date=2020-04-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404053743/https://login.suproxy.su.edu/login?qurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpsycnet.apa.org%2Fjournals%2Fpsp%2F95%2F5%2F1045.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Such [[Optimism|positive thinking]] bears fruit when based on a realistic sense of optimism, not on a naive "false hope".<ref>D. Goleman, ''Emotional Intelligence'' (1996)  p. 88</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roth |first1=Leopold Helmut Otto |title=Factor structure of the "Top Ten" positive emotions of Barbara Fredrickson |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |year=2021 |volume=12 |page=641804 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.641804 |pmid=34054647 |pmc=8162787 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The psychologist [[Charles R. Snyder]] linked hope to the existence of a goal, combined with a determined plan for reaching that goal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=28966&cn=110 |title=Breaking down Barack Obama's Psychology of Hope and how it may help you in trying times… – Wellness, Disease Prevention, And Stress Reduction Information |publisher=Mentalhelp.net |date=2008-11-05 |access-date=2012-10-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110102512/http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=28966&cn=110 |archive-date=November 10, 2012 }}</ref> [[Alfred Adler]] had similarly argued for the centrality of goal-seeking in human psychology,<ref>Eric Berne, ''What Do You Say After You Say Hello?'' (1974) p. 57–8</ref> as too had philosophical anthropologists like [[Ernst Bloch]].<ref>Peter Berger, ''A Rumour of Angels'' (1973) p. 79</ref> Snyder also stressed the link between hope and mental willpower ([[Hardiness (psychology)|hardiness]]),<ref>Snyder, Charles D.  The Psychology of Hope: You Can Get Here from There.  New York: The Free Press, 1994, pp. 7–8</ref> as well as the need for realistic perception of goals (problem orientation),<ref>{{Cite book |last1=D'Zurilla |first1=Thomas J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sbprAAAAMAAJ |title=Problem-solving Therapy: A Social Competence Approach to Clinical Intervention |last2=Nezu |first2=Arthur M. |publisher=Springer Publishing |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8261-1266-8 |location=New York |language=en}}</ref> arguing that the difference between hope and optimism was that the former can look like wishful thinking but the latter provides the energy to find practical pathways for an improved future.<ref>Snyder, Charles D.  The Psychology of Hope: You Can Get Here from There.  New York: The Free Press, 1994, pg. 19</ref> [[D. W. Winnicott]] saw a child's antisocial behavior as expressing as a cry for help, an unconscious hope, meaning an unspoken desire for a positive outcome for those who are in control in the wider society, when containment within the immediate family had failed.<ref>D. W. Winnicott, ''The Child, the Family, and the Outside World'' (1973) pp. 228–9</ref> [[Object relations theory]] similarly sees the analytic [[transference]] as motivated in part by an unconscious hope that past conflicts and traumas can be dealt with anew.<ref>P. Casement, ''Further Learning from the Patient'' (1990) p. 7</ref>

===Hope Theory===
As a specialist in [[positive psychology]], Snyder studied how hope and forgiveness can impact several aspects of life such as health, work, education, and personal meaning. He postulated that three main things make up hopeful thinking:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://teachingpsychology.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/hope-theory.pdf |title=Hope Theory |website=Teachingpsychology.files.wordpress.com |access-date=2017-06-13}}</ref>

* Goals – Approaching life in a goal-oriented way.
* Pathways – Finding different ways to achieve your goals.
* Agency – Believing that you can instigate change and achieve these goals.

[[File:Auschwitz-hope after terror.jpg|thumbnail|left|A rose expressing hope, at [[Auschwitz concentration camp]]]]

In other words, hope was defined as the perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals and motivate oneself via agency thinking to use those pathways.

Snyder argues that individuals who are able to realize these three components and develop a belief in their ability are hopeful people who can establish clear goals, imagine multiple workable pathways toward those goals, and persevere, even when obstacles get in their way.

Snyder proposed a "Hope Scale" which considered that a person's determination to achieve their goal is their measured hope. Snyder differentiates between adult-measured hope and child-measured hope. The Adult Hope Scale by Snyder contains 12 questions: 4 measuring 'pathways thinking', 4 measuring 'agency thinking', and 4 that are simply fillers. Each subject responds to each question using an 8-point scale.<ref>Snyder, C. R., Rand, K. L., & Sigmon, D. R. (2002). Hope Theory: A Member of the Positive Psychology Family. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 257–276). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Fibel and Hale measure hope by combining Snyder's Hope Scale with their own Generalized Expectancy for Success Scale (GESS) to empirically measure hope.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.missouriwestern.edu/psychology/research/psy302/spring97/teresa_hunt.html |title=Self-concept, Hope and Achievement: A look at the relationship between the individual self-concept, level of hope, and academic achievement |publisher=Missouriwestern.edu |date=1997-05-01 |access-date=2012-10-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121128043439/http://www.missouriwestern.edu/psychology/research/psy302/spring97/teresa_hunt.html |archive-date=November 28, 2012 }}</ref> Snyder regarded that psychotherapy can help focus attention on one's goals, drawing on [[tacit knowledge]] of how to reach them.<ref>Snyder, Charles D., ''The Psychology of Hope: You Can Get Here from There''.  New York: The Free Press, 1994, p. 10</ref> Similarly, there is an ''outlook'' and a ''grasp of reality'' to hope, distinguishing '''No Hope''', '''Lost Hope''', '''False Hope''' and '''Real Hope''', which differ in terms of viewpoint and realism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/hope.htm|title=Emotional Competency - Hope|website=www.emotionalcompetency.com|access-date=9 June 2017}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| rowspan="2" |Hopeful
! rowspan="4" |Outlook
!Wishful
!Committed
|-
|Hopeful Outlook<br>Distorted Reality<br>'''False Hope'''
|Hopeful Outlook<br>Accurate Reality<br>'''Real Hope'''
|-
|Skeptical
|'''No Hope'''<br>Hopeless Outlook<br>Distorted Reality
|'''Lost Hope'''<br>Hopeless Outlook<br>Accurate Reality
|-
|Hopeless
!Helpless
!Surrendered
|-
|
|
! colspan="2" |Grasp of Reality
|-
|
|
|Uninformed<br>Distorted<br>Denied
|Informed<br>Accurate<br>Assimilated
|}

Contemporary philosopher [[Richard Rorty]] understands hope as more than [[goal setting]], rather as a [[metanarrative]], a story that serves as a promise or reason for expecting a better future. Rorty as [[Postmodernism|postmodernist]] believes past meta-narratives, including the Christian story, utilitarianism, and [[Marxism]] have proved false hopes; that theory cannot offer social hope; and that liberal man must learn to live without a consensual theory of social hope.<ref>D. L. Hall, ''Richard Rorty'' (1994) p. 150 and p. 232</ref> Rorty says a new document of promise is needed for social hope to exist again.<ref>Rorty, Richard. Philosophy and Social Hope. London: Penguin Books, 1999</ref>