Editing Image scanner (section)

== History{{anchor|History of scanners}} ==
=== Precursors ===
==== Fax and wirephoto ====
{{See also|Fax#History|Wirephoto#History}}
Image scanners are considered the successors of early [[fax|facsimile]] (fax) and [[wirephoto]] machines. Unlike scanners, these devices were used to transmit images over long distances rather than for processing and storing images locally.<ref name=fundamentals>{{cite book | last=Trussell | first=H. J. | author2=M. J. Vrhel | date=2008 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWrVD50DU-YC | title=Fundamentals of Digital Imaging | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=9780521868532 | via=Google Books}}</ref>{{rp|2}}<ref name=principles />{{rp|305}} The earliest attempt at a fax machine was patented in 1843 by the Scottish clockmaker [[Alexander Bain (inventor)|Alexander Bain]] but never put into production. In his design, a metal [[stylus]] linked to a pendulum scans across a [[copper]] plate with a raised image. When the stylus makes contact with a raised part of the plate, it sends a pulse across a pair of wires to a receiver containing an [[electrode]] linked to another pendulum. A piece of paper impregnated with an electrochemically sensitive solution resides underneath the electrode and changes color whenever a pulse reaches the electrode. A gear advances the copper plate and paper in tandem with each swing of the pendulum; over time, the result is a perfect reproduction of the copper plate. In Bain's system, it is critical that the pendulums of the transceiver and receiver are in perfect step, or else the reproduced image will be distorted.<ref name=cisco>{{cite book | last=Hanes | first=David | author2=Gonzalo Salgueiro | date=2008 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mmocBBbJaa0C | title=Fax, Modem, and Text for IP Telephony | publisher=Cisco Press | pages=54–56 | isbn=9781587052699 | via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name=gtm>{{cite book | last=Solymar | first=Laszlo | date=2021 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pekrEAAAQBAJ | title=Getting the Message: A History of Communications | publisher=Oxford University Press | pages=246–248 | isbn=9780198863007 | via=Google Books}}</ref>

In 1847, the English physicist [[Frederick Bakewell]] developed the first working fax machine. Bakewell's machine was similar to Bain's but used a revolving drum coated in tinfoil, with non-conductive ink painted on the foil and a stylus that scans across the drum and sends a pulse down a pair of wires when it contacts a conductive point on the foil. The receiver contains an electrode that touches a sheet of chemically treated paper, which changes color when the electrode receives a pulse; the result is a reverse contrast (white-on-blue) reproduction of the original image. Bakewell's fax machine was marginally more successful than Bain's but suffered from the same synchronization issues. In 1862, [[Giovanni Caselli]] solved this with the [[pantelegraph]], the first fax machine put into regular service. Largely based on Bain's design, it ensured complete synchronization by flanking the pendulums of both the transceiver and receiver between two magnetic regulators, which become magnetized with each swing of the pendulum and become demagnetized when the pendulum reaches the maxima and minima of each oscillation.<ref name=worldwide />

In 1893, the American engineer [[Elisha Gray]] introduced the [[telautograph]], the first widely commercially successful fax machine that used linkage bars translating [[Cartesian coordinate system|''x''- and ''y''-axis]] motion at the receiver to scan a pen across the paper and strike it only when actuated by the stylus moving across the transceiver drum. Because it could use commodity stationery paper, it became popular in business and hospitals.<ref name=worldwide>{{cite book | last=Huurdeman | first=Anton A. | date=2003 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SnjGRDVIUL4C | title=The Worldwide History of Telecommunications | publisher=Wiley | pages=147–151 | isbn=9780471205050 | via=Google Books}}</ref> In 1902, the German engineer [[Arthur Korn]] introduced the phototelautograph, a fax machine that used a light-sensitive [[selenium cell]] to scan a paper to be copied, instead of relying on a metallic drum and stylus. It was even more commercially successful than Gray's machine and became the basis for wirephoto (also known as telephotography) machines used by newspapers around the world from the early 1900s onward.<ref name=gtm />

==== Analog scanners{{Anchor|Analog era}} ====
Before the advent of [[digital image processing]] in the middle of the 20th century, the term ''scanner'' originally referred to analog equipment used within [[Offset printing|offset printing press]]es. These analog scanners varied in design depending on their purpose: some scanned images stored as [[color transparency film]] onto [[color separation]] plates that could be used to print the original image en masse; while others were used to convert simple [[CMY color model|cyan, magenta, and yellow]] (CMY) plates into [[CMYK color model|cyan, magenta, yellow, and black]] (CMYK) in order to produce prints with darker, richer colors—a process known then in the trade as color correction (unrelated to the modern, [[Color correction|cinematographic sense]]). Converting from CMY to CMYK used to be a highly manual affair involving techniques such as [[Masking (art)|masking]]. Analog scanners automated this process to a large extent.<ref name=principles>{{cite book | last=Yule | first=J. A. C. | date=2000 | edition=Updated Reprint | orig-date=1967 | url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofcolo0000yule | title=Principles of Color Reproduction: Applied to Photomechanical Reproduction, Color Photography, and the Ink, Paper, and Other Related Industries | publisher=GATFPress | isbn=088362222X | via=the Internet Archive}}</ref>{{rp|305}}

Alexander Murray and Richard Morse invented and patented the first analog color scanner at [[Eastman Kodak Company|Eastman Kodak]] in 1937. Their machine was of a [[drum scanner]] design that imaged a color transparency mounted in the drum, with a light source placed underneath the film, and three [[photocell]]s with [[RGB color model|red, green, and blue]] color filters reading each spot on the transparency to translate the image into three electronic signals. In Murray and Morse's initial design, the drum was connected to three [[lathe]]s that etched CMY [[Halftone|halftone dots]] onto three offset cylinders directly. The rights to the patent were sold to Printing Developments Incorporated (P.D.I.) in 1946, who improved on the design by using a [[photomultiplier tube]] to image the points on the negative, which produced an amplified signal that was then fed to a single-purpose computer that processed the RGB signals into color-corrected CMYK values. The processed signals are then sent to four lathes that [[Photo etching|etch]] CMYK halftone dots onto the offset cylinders.<ref name=hunt>{{cite book | last=Hunt | first=R. W. G. | date=2005 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd_FVeuO10gC | title=The Reproduction of Colour | publisher=Wiley | pages=519–523 | isbn=9780470024263 | via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name=molla>{{cite book | last=Molla | first=Rafiqul K. | date=1988 | url=https://archive.org/details/electroniccolors0000moll/page/34/ | title=Electronic Color Separation | publisher=R.&nbsp;K. Printing and Publishing | page=34 | isbn=0962045306 | via=the Internet Archive}}</ref>

In 1948, Arthur Hardy of the Interchemical Corporation and F.&nbsp;L. Wurzburg of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] invented the first analog, color flatbed image scanner,<ref>{{cite book | last=Hand | first=Di | author2=Steve Middleditch | date=2014 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JXwABAAAQBAJ | title=Design for Media: A Handbook for Students and Professionals in Journalism, PR, and Advertising | publisher=Taylor & Francis | page=24 | isbn=9781317864011 | edition=ebook | via=Google Books}}</ref> intended for producing color-corrected [[Lithography|lithographic]] plates from a color negative. In this system, three color-separated plates (of CMY values) are prepared from a color negative via [[dot etching]] and placed in the scanner bed. Above each plate are rigidly fixed, equidistant [[light beam]] projectors that focus a beam of light onto one corner of the plate. The entire bed with all three plates moves horizontally, back and forth, to reach the opposite corners of the plate; with each horiztonal oscillation of the bed, the bed moves down one step to cover the entire vertical area of the plate. While this is happening, the beam of light focused on a given spot on the plate gets reflected and bounced off to a photocell adjacent to the projector. Each photocell connects to an [[Analog image processing|analog image processor]], which evaluates the [[reflectance]] of the combined CMY values using [[Neugebauer equations]] and outputs a signal to a light projector hovering over a fourth, unexposed lithographic plate. This plate receives a color-corrected, [[continuous tone|continuous-tone]] dot-etch of either the cyan, magenta, or yellow values. The fourth plate is replaced with another unexposed plate, and the process repeats until three color-corrected plates, of cyan, magenta and yellow, are produced. In the 1950s, the [[RCA|Radio Corporation of America]] (RCA) took Hardy and Wurzburg's patent and replaced the projector-and-photocell arrangement with a [[video camera tube]] focusing on one spot of the plate.<ref name=hunt /><ref name=molla />

=== Use in digital imaging{{Anchor|Digital era}} ===
{{See also|Digital imaging#History}}
[[File:NBSFirstScanImageRestored.jpg|thumb|The first image ever scanned to a computer, of [[Russell Kirsch|Russell A. Kirsch]]'s newborn son, Walden (1957)]]
The first [[digital imaging]] system was the [[Bartlane system]] in 1920. Named after the pair who invented it, Harry G. Bartholomew and Maynard D. McFarlane, the Bartlane system used [[Zincography|zinc plates]] etched with an image from a [[film negative]] projected at five different exposure levels to correspond to five quantization levels. All five plates are affixed to a long, motor-driven rotating cylinder, with five equidistant contacts scanning over each plate at the same starting position. The Bartlane system was initially used exclusively by telegraph, with the five-bit [[Baudot code]] used to transmit the [[grayscale]] digital image. In 1921, the system was modified for offline use, with a five-bit [[punched tape|paper tape punch]] punching holes depending on whether its connections to the contacts are bridged or not. The result was a stored digital image with five gray levels. Reproduction of the image was achieved with a lamp passing over the punched holes, exposing five different intensities of light onto a film negative.<ref name=fundamentals /><ref>{{cite book | last=Dougherty | first=Edward R. | author-link=Edward R. Dougherty | date=1999 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G040Use2M8wC | title=Electronic Imaging Technology | publisher=SPIE Optical Engineering Press | pages=7–8 | isbn=9780819430373 | via=Google Books}}</ref>

The first scanner to store its images digitally onto a computer was a drum scanner built in 1957 at the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|National Bureau of Standards]] (NBS, later NIST) by a team led by [[Russell Kirsch|Russell A. Kirsch]]. It used a photomultiplier tube to detect light at a given point and produced an amplified signal that a computer could read and store into memory. The computer of choice at the time was the [[SEAC (computer)|SEAC]] [[Mainframe computer|mainframe]]; the maximum horizontal resolution that the SEAC was capable of processing was 176&nbsp;pixels. The first image ever scanned on this machine was a photograph of Kirsch's three-month-old son, Walden.<ref name=fundamentals /><ref>{{cite book | last=Loubere | first=Philip | date=2021 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oe8eEAAAQBAJ | title=A History of Communication Technology | publisher=Taylor & Francis | page=254 | isbn=9780429560712 | via=Google Books}}</ref>

In 1969, [[Dacom]] introduced the 111 fax machine, which was the first digital fax machine to employ [[data compression]] using an on-board computer. It employed a flatbed design with a continuous feed capable of scanning up to [[letter paper]] in [[1-bit color|1-bit]] monochrome (black and white).<ref>{{cite journal | last=Rosenwald | first=Jeffrey | date=February 1988 | url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A6501274/GPS?u=wikipedia | title=Getting the Fax Straight | journal=Administrative Management | publisher=Dalton Communications | volume=49 | issue=1 | pages=41 ''et seq'' | via=Gale}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Costigan | first=Daniel M. | date=1971 | url=https://archive.org/details/faxprinciplespra0000cost/page/213/ | title=Fax: The Principles and Practice of Facsimile Communication | publisher=Chilton Book | page=213 | isbn=9780801956416 | via=the Internet Archive}}</ref>
[[File:Autokon 1000DE.jpg|thumb|Autokon B&W flatbed standalone scanner.|alt=ECRM Autokon 1000DE, a standalone flatbed scanner for newspaper and commercial applications]]
The first flatbed scanner used for digital image processing was the Autokon 8400, introduced by ECRM Inc., a subsidiary of [[AM International]], in 1975.<ref name=solving>{{cite journal | last=Bruno | first=Michael H. | date=May 1983 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hU4gAQAAMAAJ | title=Solving the Equipment/Technology Equation | journal=American Printer | publisher=Maclean Hunter Publishing | volume=191 | issue=2 | pages=31–35 | via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name=scaling>{{cite journal | last=Bruno | first=Michael H. | date=October 1985 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hU4gAQAAMAAJ | title=Scaling the Heights of High Technology | journal=American Printer | publisher=Maclean Hunter Publishing | volume=196 | issue=1 | pages=39–43 | via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name=advances>{{cite book | last=Banks | first=W.&nbsp;H. | date=1984 | url=https://archive.org/details/advancesinprinti0000inte_y6z3/page/63/ | title=Advances in Printing Science and Technology: Proceedings of the 17th International Conference of Printing Research Institutes, Saltsjöbaden, Sweden, June 1983 | publisher=Pentech | pages=63–64 | isbn=978-0-7273-0109-3 | via=the Internet Archive}}</ref> The Autokon 8400 used a [[Laser|laser beam]] to scan pages up to 11&nbsp;by 14&nbsp;inches at a maximum resolution of 1000&nbsp;lines per inch. Although it was only capable of scanning in 1-bit monochrome, the on-board processor was capable of halftoning, [[unsharp mask]]ing, contrast adjustment, and [[Anamorphic stretch transform|anamorphic distortions]], among other features.<ref name=advances /><ref name=concise>{{cite book | last= Wallis | first=L.&nbsp;W. | date=1988 | url=https://archive.org/details/concisechronolog0000wall/page/53/ | title=A Concise Chronology of Typesetting Developments, 1886–1986 | publisher=Severnside Printers | isbn=0853315388 | via=Google Books}}</ref>{{rp|53}} The Autokon 8400 could either be connected to a [[film recorder]] to create a negative for producing plates or connected to a mainframe or minicomputer for further image processing and digital storage.<ref name=concise />{{rp|53}}<ref>{{cite journal | last=Staff writer | date=February 1981 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_editor-publisher_1981-05-09_114_19/page/60/ | title=Exhibitor listing for Atlantic City ANPA/RI Conference: AM ECRM | journal=Editor and Publisher | publisher=Duncan McIntosh | volume=114 | issue=19 | page=60 | via=the Internet Archive}}</ref> The Autokon 8400 enjoyed widespread use in newspapers—ECRM shipped 1,000 units to newspaper publishers by 1985<ref name=scaling />—but its limited resolution and maximum scan size made it unsuitable for commercial printing. In 1982, ECRM introduced the Autokon 8500, capable of scanning up to 1200&nbsp;lines per inch. Four of ECRM's competitors introduced commercial flatbed scanners that year, including [[Scitex]], [[Agfa-Gevaert]], and [[Linotype-Hell]], all of which were capable of scanning larger prints at higher resolutions.<ref name=solving /> ECRM introduced the Autokon 1000DE in 1985 to address the shortcomings of the Autokon 8400/8500. The 1000DE (digital enhancement) used a microprocessor to produce the sharpening effect as against the 8400 which used analogue electronics and an optical method to create sharpening. The Autokon 1000DE had a touchpad rather than analogue rotary controls. The Autokon 1000DE had applications in both commercial and newspaper environments where only a single halftone was required ie black and white. Whilst typically the Autokon 8400 was a standalone output device that scanned and then output to either photosensitive, roll format bromide paper or film, the Autokon 1000DE was often connected to Apple Macintoshes or PCs via a dedicated interface such as those from HighWater Designs. The last Autokon was a wider format, online only device which utilised both a red and green laser to improve the response to the scanning of colour photographs.

In 1977, [[Ray Kurzweil|Raymond Kurzweil]], of his start-up company Kurzweil Computer Products, released the Kurzweil Reading Machine, which was the first flatbed scanner with a [[charge-coupled device]] (CCD) imaging element.<ref name=arnst>{{cite journal | last=Arnst | first=Catherine | date=February 9, 1976 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hFovUfeJp0wC&pg=PA6 | title=System 'Reads' Printed Pages to Blind | journal=Computerworld | publisher=CW Communications | volume=X | issue=6 | page=6 | via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Peres | first=Michael R. | edition=4th | date=2012 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g4Wx9yKrDS0C | title=The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography | publisher=Taylor & Francis | page=16 | isbn=9781136106132 | via=Google Books}}</ref> The Kurzweil Reading Machine was invented to assist [[Blindness|blind people]] in reading books that had not been translated to [[braille]]. It comprised the image scanner and a [[Data General]] [[Data General Nova|Nova minicomputer]]—the latter performing the image processing, [[optical character recognition]] (OCR), and [[speech synthesis]].<ref name=arnst />

The first scanners for [[personal computer]]s appeared in the mid-1980s, starting with ThunderScan for the [[Mac (computer)|Macintosh]] in December 1984.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Bobker | first=Steven | date=March 1990 | url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A8090704/GPS?u=wikipedia | title=Bobker's Dozen: Good Things and Small Packages | journal=MacUser | publisher=IDG Communications | volume=6 | issue=3 | pages=38 ''et seq'' | via=Gale}}</ref> Designed by [[Andy Hertzfeld]] and released by Thunderware Inc., the ThunderScan contains a specialized image sensor built into a plastic housing the same shape as the [[ink ribbon]] cartridge of [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]'s [[ImageWriter]] printer. The ThunderScan slots into the ImageWriter's ribbon carrier and connects to both the ImageWriter and the Macintosh simultaneously. The ImageWriter's carriage, controlled by the ThunderScan, moves left-to-right to scan one 200-[[Dots per inch|dpi]] (dots per inch) line at a time, with the carriage return serving to advance the scanner down the print to be scanned. The ThunderScan was the Macintosh's first scanner and sold well but operated very slowly and was only capable of scanning prints at 1-bit monochrome.<ref>{{cite book | last=Hertzfeld | first=Andy | author1-link=Andy Hertzfeld | author2=Steve Capps | date=2005 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VQQCtFT1CGIC | title=Revolution in The Valley: The Insanely Great Story of How the Mac Was Made | publisher=O'Reilly Media | page=242 | isbn=9780596007195 | via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name=mcneill>{{cite journal | last=McNeill | first=Dan | date=August 1985 | url=https://archive.org/details/popular-computing-1985-08/page/n69/ | title=Image Processing: The computer becomes a copier | journal=Personal Computing | publisher=McGraw-Hill | volume=4 | issue=10 | pages=64–66, 124–125 | via=the Internet Archive}}</ref> In 1999, [[Canon Inc.|Canon]] iterated on this idea with the IS-22, a cartridge that fit into their inkjet printers to convert them into sheetfed scanners.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tyh48FdECXYC&pg=PA88 | journal=American Photo | date=December 1997 | via=Google Books | title=Output Puts Out | author=Staff writer | volume=VIII | number=6}}</ref>

In early 1985, the first flatbed scanner for the [[IBM Personal Computer|IBM PC]], the [[Datacopy]] Model 700, was released. Based on a CCD imaging element, the Model 700 was capable of scanning letter-sized documents at a maximum resolution of 200&nbsp;dpi at 1-bit monochrome. The Model 700 came with a special interface card for connecting to the PC, and an optional, aftermarket OCR software card and software package were sold for the Model 700.<ref name=mcneill /><ref name=concise />{{rp|69}}<ref>{{cite journal | last=Bermant | first=Charles | date=December 11, 1984 | url=https://archive.org/details/PC-Mag-1984-12-11/page/n57/ | title=Hardware At COMDEX: Peripherals Dominate | journal=PC Magazine | publisher=Ziff-Davis | volume=3 | issue=24 | pages=54–56 | via=Google Books}}</ref> In April 1985, LaserFAX Inc. introduced the first CCD-based color flatbed scanner, the SpectraSCAN 200, for the IBM PC. The SpectraSCAN 200 worked by placing color filters over the CCD and taking four passes (three for each primary color and one for black) per scan to build up a color reproduction. The SpectraSCAN 200 took between two and three minutes to produce a scan of a letter-sized print at 200-dpi; its grayscale counterpart, the DS-200, took only 30&nbsp;seconds to make a scan at the same size and resolution.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Rosenthal | first=Steve | date=July 9, 1985 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SprPDrQRvM8C&pg=PA128 | title=Scanners at a Glance | journal=PC Magazine | publisher=Ziff-Davis | volume=4 | issue=14 | pages=128–133 | via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Doherty | first=Rick | date=April 8, 1985 | url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A617831/GPS?u=wikipedia | title=LaserFAX Is 1st Graphics Scanner Computer System | journal= Electronic Engineering Times | publisher=UBM LLC | issue=324 | page=45 | via=Gale}}</ref>

The first relatively affordable flatbed scanner for personal computers appeared in February 1987 with [[Hewlett-Packard]]'s [[HP ScanJet|ScanJet]], which was capable of scanning 4-bit (64-shade) grayscale images at a maximum resolution of 300&nbsp;dpi.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Bridges | first=Linda | date=March 3, 1987 | url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A4683850/GPS?u=wikipedia | title=New HP Laser Printer Compact, Less Expensive | journal=PC Week | publisher=Ziff-Davis | volume=4 | issue=9 | pages=1 ''et seq'' | via=Gale}}</ref><ref name=scanjetunlimited>{{cite book | last=Dickman | first=Chris | author2=Salvatore Parascandolo | author3=Steve Roth | date=1990 | url=https://archive.org/details/scanjetunlimited00dick | title=ScanJet Unlimited | publisher=Peachpit Press | pages=iii–iv | isbn=9780938151098 | via=the Internet Archive}}</ref> By the beginning of 1988, the ScanJet had accounted for 27&nbsp;percent of all scanner sales in terms of dollar volume, per [[Gartner Dataquest]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Bannister | first=Hank | date=January 12, 1988 | url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A6172276/GPS?u=wikipedia | title=Mac market proving receptive to scanner use | journal=PC Week | publisher=Ziff-Davis | volume=5 | issue=2 | pages=94 ''et seq'' | via=Gale}}</ref> In February 1989, the company introduced the ScanJet Plus, which increased the bit depth to 8&nbsp;bits (256&nbsp;shades) while costing only US$200 more than the original ScanJet's $1990 ({{inflation|US|1990|1989|fmt=eq}}).<ref name=scanjetunlimited /> This led to a massive price drop in grayscale scanners with equivalent or lesser features in the market.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Cavuoto | first=James | date=September 1989 | url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A7646738/GPS?u=wikipedia | title=Desktop Scanners: Users Benefit from Advances in Gray Scale, Color, and Resolution | journal=Computer Graphics World | publisher=PennWell Publishing | volume=12 | issue=9 | pages=43 ''et seq'' | via=Gale}}</ref> The number of third-party developers producing software and hardware supporting these scanners jumped dramatically in turn, effectively popularizing the scanner for the personal computer user.<ref name=scanjetunlimited /><ref>{{cite journal | date=August 1994 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U88jAQAAMAAJ&q=%22scanjet+was+the%22 | title=Peripheral Visions | journal=Computer Buyer's Guide and Handbook | publisher=Computer Information Publishing | volume=12 | issue=8 | pages=33–47 | via=Google Books}}</ref> By 1999, the cost of the average color-capable scanner had dropped to $300 ({{inflation|US|300|1999|fmt=eq}}). That year, ''[[Computer Shopper (US magazine)|Computer Shopper]]'' declared 1999 "the year that scanners finally became a mainstream commodity".<ref>{{cite journal | last=Labriola | first=Don | date=January 1999 | url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A53342675/GPS?u=wikipedia | title=Scanner: HP ScanJet 5100C Series | journal=Computer Shopper | publisher=SX2 Media Labs | page=194 | via=Gale}}</ref>