Editing Index Librorum Prohibitorum (section)

==Background and history==

===European restrictions on the right to print===
[[File:Handtiegelpresse von 1811.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|Printing press from 1811, [[Munich]], Germany]]

The historical context in which the ''Index'' appeared involved the early restrictions on printing in Europe. The refinement of [[moveable type]] and the [[printing press]] by [[Johannes Gutenberg]] {{circa|1440}} changed the nature of book publishing, and the mechanism by which information could be disseminated to the public.<ref>McLuhan, Marshall (1962), The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1st ed.), University of Toronto Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8020-6041-9}} p. 124</ref> Books, once rare and kept carefully in a small number of libraries, could be mass-produced and widely disseminated.

In the 16th century, both the churches and governments in most European countries attempted to regulate and control printing because it allowed for the rapid and widespread circulation of ideas and information. The [[Protestant Reformation]] generated large quantities of polemical new writing by and within both the Catholic and Protestant camps, and religious subject matter was typically the area most subject to control. While governments and the church encouraged printing in many ways, which allowed the dissemination of [[Bible]]s and government information, works of dissent and criticism could also circulate rapidly. As a consequence, governments established controls over printers across Europe, requiring them to have official licenses to trade and produce books.<ref name="MacQueen 2007 34">{{cite book |last1=MacQueen |first1=Hector L. |last2=Waelde |first2=Charlotte |last3=Laurie |first3=Graeme T. |title=Contemporary Intellectual Property: Law and Policy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |page=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Iwcn4pT0OoC&q=contemporary+intellectual+property |isbn=978-0-19-926339-4}}</ref><ref name="de Sola Pool 1983 14">{{cite book |last=de Sola Pool |first=Ithiel |title=Technologies of freedom |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1983 |page=[https://archive.org/details/technologiesoffr00ithi/page/14 14] |url=https://archive.org/details/technologiesoffr00ithi/page/14 |isbn=978-0-674-87233-2}}</ref>

The early versions of prohibition indexes began to appear from 1529 to 1571. In the same time frame, in 1557 the [[English crown]] aimed to stem the flow of dissent by chartering the [[Stationers' Company]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers|url=https://shakespearedocumented.folger.edu/worshipful-company-stationers-and-newspaper-makers|website=Shakespeare Documented|access-date=2020-05-30}}</ref> The right to print was restricted to the two universities (Oxford and Cambridge) and to the 21 existing printers in the [[city of London]], which had between them 53 [[printing presses]].<ref name=":0" />{{pn|date=June 2022}}

The French crown also tightly controlled printing, and the printer and writer [[Étienne Dolet]] was burned at the stake for atheism in 1546. The 1551 [[Edict of Châteaubriant]] comprehensively summarized censorship positions to date, and included provisions for unpacking and inspecting all books brought into France.<ref>''The Rabelais encyclopedia'' by Elizabeth A. Chesney 2004 {{ISBN|0-313-31034-3}} pp. 31–32</ref><ref>''The printing press as an agent of change'' by Elizabeth L. Eisenstein 1980 {{ISBN|0-521-29955-1}} page 328</ref> The 1557 [[Edict of Compiègne]] applied the death penalty to heretics and resulted in the burning of a noblewoman at the stake.<ref>Robert Jean Knecht, ''The Rise and Fall of Renaissance France: 1483–1610'' 2001, {{ISBN|0-631-22729-6}} p. 241</ref> Printers were viewed as radical and rebellious, with 800 authors, printers and book dealers being incarcerated in the [[Bastille]].<ref name="de Sola Pool 1983 15">{{cite book |last=de Sola Pool |first=Ithiel |title=Technologies of freedom |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1983 |page=[https://archive.org/details/technologiesoffr00ithi/page/15 15] |url=https://archive.org/details/technologiesoffr00ithi/page/15 |isbn=978-0-674-87233-2}}</ref> At times, the prohibitions of church and state followed each other, e.g. [[René Descartes]] was placed on the Index in the 1660s and the French government prohibited the teaching of [[Cartesianism]] in schools in the 1670s.<ref name=":0">''A companion to Descartes'' by Janet Broughton, John Peter Carriero 2007 {{ISBN|1-4051-2154-8}}</ref>{{pn|date=June 2022}}

The [[Statute of Anne|Copyright Act 1710]] in Britain, and later copyright laws in France, eased this situation. Historian Eckhard Höffner claims that copyright laws and their restrictions acted as a barrier to progress in those countries for over a century, since British publishers could print valuable knowledge in limited quantities for the sake of profit. The German economy prospered in the same time frame since there were no restrictions.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/no-copyright-law-the-real-reason-for-germany-s-industrial-expansion-a-710976.html|title=No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?|first=Frank|last=Thadeusz|newspaper=Der Spiegel|date=18 August 2010|via=Spiegel Online}}</ref><ref>''Geschichte und Wesen des Urheberrechts'' (History and nature of copyright) by Eckhard Höffner, 2010 (in German) {{ISBN|3-930893-16-9}}</ref>{{pn|date=June 2022}}

===Early indexes (1529–1571)===
[[File:Index 1557.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Title page of the first Papal Index, {{lang|la|Index Auctorum et Librorum}}, published in 1557 and then withdrawn]]

The first list of the kind was not published in [[Rome]], but in Catholic [[Habsburg Netherlands|Netherlands]] (1529); [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] (1543) and [[Paris]] (1551) under the terms of the [[Edict of Châteaubriant]] followed this example. By the mid-century, in the tense atmosphere of wars of religion in Germany and France, both Protestant and Catholic authorities reasoned that only control of the press, including a catalogue of prohibited works, coordinated by ecclesiastic and governmental authorities, could prevent the spread of heresy.<ref name="Schmitt 1991:45">Schmitt 1991:45.</ref>

Paul F. Grendler (1975) discusses the religious and political climate in Venice from 1540 to 1605. There were many attempts to censor the Venetian press, which at that time was one of the largest concentrations of printers. Both church and government held to a belief in censorship, but the publishers continually pushed back on the efforts to ban books and shut down printing. More than once the index of banned books in Venice was suppressed or suspended because various people took a stand against it.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Grendler |first=Paul F. |title=The Roman Inquisition and the Venetian Press |journal=The Journal of Modern History |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=48–65 |date=1975 |jstor=1878921 |s2cid=151934209 |doi=10.1086/241292}}</ref>

The first Roman ''Index'' was printed in 1557 under the direction of [[Pope Paul IV]] (1555–1559), but then withdrawn for unclear reasons.<ref name="Brown 70" /> In 1559, a new index was finally published, banning the entire works of some 550 authors in addition to the individual proscribed titles:<ref name="Brown 70">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924092741192/page/n79/mode/2up|title=Studies in the History of Venice (Vol. 2)|first=Horatio F.|last=Brown|year=1907|publisher=New York, E.P. Dutton and company}}</ref>{{NoteTag|They included everything by [[Pietro Aretino]], [[Machiavelli]], [[Erasmus]] and [[Rabelais]].<ref name="Schmitt 1991:45"/>}} "The Pauline Index felt that the religious convictions of an author contaminated all his writing."<ref name="Schmitt 1991:45" /> The work of the censors was considered too severe and met with much opposition even in Catholic intellectual circles; after the [[Council of Trent]] had authorised a revised list prepared under [[Pope Pius IV]], the so-called ''Tridentine Index'' was promulgated in 1564; it remained the basis of all later lists until [[Pope Leo XIII]], in 1897, published his {{lang|la|Index Leonianus}}.

The [[blacklisting]] of some Protestant scholars even when writing on subjects a modern reader would consider outside the realm of [[dogma]] meant that, unless they obtained a [[Dispensation (Catholic Church)|dispensation]], obedient Catholic thinkers were denied access to works including: botanist [[Conrad Gesner]]'s {{lang|la|[[Historiae animalium (Gesner)|Historiae animalium]]}}; the botanical works of [[Otto Brunfels]]; those of the medical scholar [[Janus Cornarius]]; to [[Christoph Hegendorff]] or [[Johann Oldendorp]] on the theory of law; Protestant geographers and cosmographers like [[Jacob Ziegler]] or [[Sebastian Münster]]; as well as anything by Protestant theologians like [[Martin Luther]], [[John Calvin]] or [[Philipp Melanchthon]].{{NoteTag|These authors are instanced by Schmitt 1991.}} Among the inclusions was the [[Libri Carolini]], a theological work from the 9th-century court of [[Charlemagne]], which was published in 1549 by Bishop [[Jean du Tillet (bishop)|Jean du Tillet]] and which had already been on two other lists of prohibited books before being inserted into the Tridentine Index.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7rjenNXferEC&pg=PA90 Paul Oskar Kristeller (editor), ''Itinerarium Italicum''] (Brill 1975 {{ISBN|978-90-0404259-9}}), p.&nbsp;90.</ref>

===Sacred Congregation of the Index (1571–1917)===
{{Roman Curia}}
[[File:Index Librorum Prohibitorum 1711.jpg|thumb|Title page of the {{lang|la|Index Librorum Prohibitorum}} (1711)]]

In 1571, a special [[Congregation (Roman Curia)|congregation]] was created, the '''Sacred Congregation of the Index''', which had the specific task to investigate those writings that were denounced in [[Rome]] as being not exempt of errors, to update the list of Pope Pius IV regularly and also to make lists of required corrections in case a writing was not to be condemned absolutely but only in need of correction; it was then listed with a mitigating clause (e.g., {{lang|la|donec corrigatur}} ('forbidden until corrected') or {{lang|la|donec expurgetur}} ('forbidden until purged')).{{cn|date=June 2017}}

Several times a year, the congregation held meetings. During the meetings, they reviewed various works and documented those discussions. In between the meetings was when the works to be discussed were thoroughly examined, and each work was scrutinized by two people. At the meetings, they collectively decided whether or not the works should be included in the Index. Ultimately, the pope was the one who had to approve of works being added or removed from the Index. It was the documentation from the meetings of the congregation that aided the pope in making his decision.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Heneghan |first=Thomas |title=Secrets Behind The Forbidden Books |journal=America |date=2005 |volume=192 |issue=4 |url=http://americamagazine.org/issue/517/article/secrets-behindthe-forbidden-books |access-date=27 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726125102/http://americamagazine.org/issue/517/article/secrets-behindthe-forbidden-books |archive-date=26 July 2014}}</ref>

[[File:Galileo before the Holy Office.jpg|thumb|left|[[Galileo]] being condemned in 1633]]
This sometimes resulted in very long lists of corrections, published in the {{lang|la|Index Expurgatorius}}, which was cited by [[Thomas James]] in 1627 as "an invaluable reference work to be used by the curators of the [[Bodleian Library]] when listing those works particularly worthy of collecting".<ref>
{{citation |title=Encyclopedia on Censorship |first1=Jonathan |last1=Green |first2=Nicholas J. |last2=Karolides |page=257 |publisher=Facts on File, Inc |year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bunHURgi7FcC&pg=PA257|isbn=9781438110011}}</ref> Prohibitions made by other congregations (mostly the Holy Office) were simply passed on to the Congregation of the Index, where the final [[decree]]s were drafted and made public, after approval of the [[Pope]] (who always had the option to condemn an author personally—there are only a few examples of such condemnation, including those of [[Lamennais]] and [[George Hermes|Hermes]]).{{cn|date=June 2017}}

An update to the Index was made by Pope [[Leo XIII]], in the 1897 apostolic constitution {{lang|la|[[Officiorum ac Munerum]]}}, known as the {{lang|la|Index Leonianus}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03519d.htm|title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Censorship of Books|website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> Subsequent editions of the Index were more sophisticated; they graded authors according to their supposed degree of toxicity, and they marked specific passages for expurgation rather than condemning entire books.<ref>Lyons, Martyn. (2011). Books: A Living History. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-60606-083-4}}, p. 83</ref>

The [[Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition]] of the Roman Catholic Church later became the [[Holy Office]], and since 1965 has been called the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]]. The Congregation of the Index was merged with the Holy Office in 1917, by the {{lang|la|[[motu proprio]] Alloquentes Proxime}} of Pope Benedict XV; the rules on the reading of books were again re-elaborated in the new {{lang|la|Codex Iuris Canonici}}. From 1917 onward, the Holy Office (again) took care of the Index.{{cn|date=June 2017}}

[[File:Mein Kampf dust jacket.jpeg|thumb|upright=0.6|Although Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg's book ''[[Myth of the Twentieth Century]]'' was placed on the Index, Adolf Hitler's book {{lang|de|[[Mein Kampf]]}} was not.<ref name= AmericMag />]]

===Holy Office (1917–1966)===
{{see also|Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith}}

While individual books continued to be forbidden, the last edition of the Index to be published appeared in 1948. This 20th edition<ref name=EB>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Index-Librorum-Prohibitorum|title=Index Librorum Prohibitorum &#124; Roman Catholicism|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> contained 4,000 titles censored for various reasons: [[heresy]], moral deficiency, [[Human sexuality|sexual]] explicitness, and so on. That some [[atheist]]s, such as [[Schopenhauer]] and [[Nietzsche]], were not included was due to the general ([[Council of Trent|Tridentine]]) rule that [[heretical]] works (i.e., works that contradict Catholic dogma) are ''[[ipso facto]]'' forbidden. Some important works are absent simply because nobody bothered to denounce them.<ref>"The works appearing on the Index are only those that ecclesiastical authority was asked to act upon" ([https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285220/Index-Librorum-Prohibitorum Encyclopædia Britannica: Index Librorum Prohibitorum).]</ref> Many actions of the congregations were of a definite [[political]] content.<ref>"The entanglement of Church and state power in many cases led to overtly political titles being placed on the Index, titles which had little to do with immorality or attacks on the Catholic faith. For example, a history of Bohemia, the Rervm Bohemica Antiqvi Scriptores Aliqvot{{nbsp}}[...] by Marqvardi Freheri (published in 1602), was placed on the Index not for attacking the Church, but rather because it advocated the independence of Bohemia from the (Catholic) Austro-Hungarian Empire. Likewise, The Prince by Machiavelli was placed in the Index in 1559 after it was blamed for widespread political corruption in France (Curry, 1999, p. 5)" ([http://www.unc.edu/~dusto/dusto_prague_paper.pdf David Dusto, ''Index Librorum Prohibitorum: The History, Philosophy, and Impact of the Index of Prohibited Books'').] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020043824/http://www.unc.edu/~dusto/dusto_prague_paper.pdf |date=20 October 2012}}</ref>

Among the denounced works of the period was the Nazi philosopher [[Alfred Rosenberg]]'s ''[[Myth of the Twentieth Century]]'' for scorning and rejecting "all dogmas of the Catholic Church, and the fundamentals of the Christian religion".<ref name="Richard Bonney pp. 122">Richard Bonney; ''Confronting the Nazi War on Christianity: the Kulturkampf Newsletters, 1936–1939''; International Academic Publishers; Bern; 2009 {{ISBN|978-3-03911-904-2}}; p. 122</ref> Markedly absent from the Index was Adolf Hitler's book {{lang|de|[[Mein Kampf]]}}. After gaining access to the [[Vatican Secret Archives|Vatican Apostolic Archive]] church historian [[Hubert Wolf]] discovered that {{lang|de|Mein Kampf}} had been studied for three years but the Holy Office decided that it should not go on the Index because the author was a head of state.<ref name="AmericMag">Tom Heneghan "Secrets Behind The Forbidden Books" [[America Magazine]] Feb 7, 2005 [https://www.americamagazine.org/issue/517/article/secrets-behind-forbidden-books]</ref> The Holy Office justified that decision by referring to chapter 13 of [[Paul the Apostle]]'s [[Epistle to the Romans]] regarding state authority coming from God.<ref name= AmericMag /> However, somewhat later, the Vatican criticized {{lang|de|Mein Kampf}} in the encyclical {{lang|la|[[Mit Brennender Sorge]]}} (March 1937) about the challenges of the church in Nazi Germany.<ref name= AmericMag />

===Abolition (1966)===
On 7 December 1965, Pope Paul VI issued the {{lang|la|motu proprio [[Integrae servandae]]}} that reorganized the Holy Office as the ''Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith''.<ref>{{cite web|author=Paul VI, Pope|date=7 December 1965|title=Integrae servandae|website=vatican.va|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/motu_proprio/documents/hf_p-vi_motu-proprio_19651207_integrae-servandae.html|access-date=10 July 2016}}</ref> The Index was not listed as being a part of the newly constituted congregation's competence, leading to questioning whether it still was. This question was put to Cardinal [[Alfredo Ottaviani]], pro-prefect of the congregation, who responded in the negative.<ref>''L'Osservatore della Domenica'', 24 April 1966, p. 10.</ref> The Cardinal also indicated in his response that there was going to be a change in the Index soon.

A June 1966 Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith [[Notification (Holy See)|notification]] announced that, while the ''Index'' maintained its moral force, in that it taught Christians to beware, as required by the natural law itself, of those writings that could endanger faith and morality, it no longer had the force of [[ecclesiastical positive law]] with the associated penalties.<ref>{{cite web|author=Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith|date=14 June 1966|title=Notification regarding the abolition of the Index of books|website=vatican.va|url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19660614_de-indicis-libr-prohib_en.html|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307041622/https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19660614_de-indicis-libr-prohib_en.html|archive-date=7 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Canon law of the Catholic Church|canon law]] of the [[Latin Church]] still recommends that works should be submitted to the judgment of the local [[Ordinary (Catholic Church)|ordinary]] (typically, the bishop) if they concern sacred [[scripture]], [[Catholic theology|theology]], canon law, or [[History of the Catholic Church|church history]], religion or morals.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P2P.HTM|title=Code of Canon Law: text - IntraText CT|website=www.intratext.com}}</ref> The local [[Ordinary (church officer)|ordinary]] consults someone whom he considers competent to give a judgment and, if that person gives the {{lang|la|[[nihil obstat]]}} ('nothing forbids'), the local ordinary grants the {{lang|la|[[imprimatur]]}} ('let it be printed').<ref name="auto"/> Members of religious institutes require the {{lang|la|[[imprimi potest]]}} ('it can be printed') of their major superior to publish books on matters of religion or morals.<ref name="auto"/>