Editing Information management (section)

==History==

===Emergent ideas out of data management===
In the 1970s, the management of information largely concerned matters closer to what would now be called [[data management]]: [[punched cards]], [[magnetic tape]]s and other record-keeping [[Digital media|media]], involving a life cycle of such formats requiring origination, distribution, backup, maintenance and disposal. At this time the huge potential of [[information technology]] began to be recognised: for example a single [[Integrated circuit|chip]] storing a whole [[book]], or [[electronic mail]] moving messages instantly around the world, remarkable ideas at the time.<ref name="Evans">Evans, C., 1979. ''The Mighty Micro'', London: Victor Gollancz.</ref> With the proliferation of information technology and the extending reach of information systems in the 1980s and 1990s,<ref name="Venkat0">Venkatraman, N., 1994. IT-enabled business transformation: from automation to business scope redefinition. ''[[MIT Sloan Management Review]]'', 35(2), pp.73–87</ref> information management took on a new form. Progressive businesses such as [[BP]] transformed the vocabulary of what was then "[[IT management]]", so that "[[systems analyst]]s" became "[[business analyst]]s", "monopoly supply" became a mixture of "[[insourcing]]" and "[[outsourcing]]", and the large IT function was transformed into "lean teams" that began to allow some agility in the processes that harness information for [[business benefit]].<ref name="Cross and Earl">Cross, J. & Earl, M., 1997. Transformation of the IT function at British Petroleum. ''MIS Quarterly'', 21(4), page 403</ref> The scope of [[senior management]] interest in information at BP extended from the creation of value through improved [[business process]]es, based upon the effective management of information, permitting the implementation of appropriate information systems (or "[[application software|applications]]") that were operated on [[IT infrastructure]] that was outsourced.<ref name="Cross and Earl" /> In this way, information management was no longer a simple job that could be performed by anyone who had nothing else to do, it became highly strategic and a matter for [[senior management]] attention. An understanding of the technologies involved, an ability to manage information systems [[project]]s and [[business change]] well, and a willingness to align technology and business strategies all became necessary.<ref name="Ward and Peppard">Ward, J. & Peppard, J., 2002. ''Strategic Planning for Information Systems'' (3rd Edition), Chichester: Wiley</ref>

===Positioning information management in the bigger picture===
In the transitional period leading up to the strategic view of information management, Venkatraman, a strong advocate of this transition and transformation,<ref name="Venkat2">Venkatraman, N., 1994. IT-enabled business transformation: from automation to business scope redefinition. ''Sloan Management Review'', 35(2), pp.73–87.</ref> proffered a simple arrangement of ideas that succinctly brought together the [[Data management|management of data]], information, and [[knowledge management|knowledge]] (see the figure) argued that:

* Data that is maintained in IT infrastructure has to be ''interpreted'' in order to render information.
* The information in our information systems has to be ''understood'' in order to emerge as knowledge.
* Knowledge allows managers to ''take effective decisions''.
* Effective decisions have to lead to ''appropriate actions''. 
* Appropriate actions are expected to deliver ''meaningful results''.

[[File:DIKAR model.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|This simple model summarises a presentation by Venkatraman in 1996, as reported by Ward and Peppard (2002, page 207).<ref name="Ward and Peppard"/>]]
This is often referred to as the DIKAR model: Data, Information, Knowledge, Action and Result,<ref name="Venkat1">Venkatraman, N., 1996. Managing IT resources as a value center, ''IS Executive Seminar Series, Cranfield School of Management''</ref> it gives a strong clue as to the layers involved in aligning technology and organisational strategies, and it can be seen as a pivotal moment in changing attitudes to information management.  The recognition that information management is an investment that must deliver meaningful results is important to all modern organisations that depend on information and good decision-making for their success.<ref name="Bytheway">Bytheway, A., 2015. [https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783319119083 Investing in Information: the Information Management Body of Knowledge], Geneva: Springer</ref>