Editing Ingres (database) (section)

==History==
Ingres began as a research project at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], starting in the early 1970s and ending in 1985.<ref name="UCBerkley"/> The original code, like that from other projects at Berkeley, was available at minimal cost under a version of the [[BSD license]]. Ingres spawned a number of commercial database applications, including [[Sybase]], [[Microsoft SQL Server]], [[NonStop SQL]] and a number of others.<ref name=BSD>{{cite web |url=http://bnrg.cs.berkeley.edu/~adj/cs262/Lec_8_27a.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060527225925/http://bnrg.cs.berkeley.edu/~adj/cs262/Lec_8_27a.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 27, 2006 |title=DBMS History |author1=Joe Hellerstein |author2=Anthony Joseph }}</ref>

Postgres ('''Post''' In'''gres'''), a project which started in the mid-1980s,<ref>{{cite web  |website=britannica.com
|quote=(In Michael Stonebraker) ...tenure at Berkeley,  Postgres (Post INGRES) in 1986.
|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/INGRES  
|title=Ingres (Stonebraker)}}</ref> later evolved into [[PostgreSQL]]. It is [[ACID]] compatible and is fully transactional (including all [[Data definition language|DDL]] statements) and is part of the [[Lisog]] open-source stack initiative.

===1970s===
In 1973 when the [[IBM System R|System R]] project led by [[Edgar Codd]] was getting started at [[IBM]], the research team released a series of papers describing the system they were building.<ref name=BSD/> Two scientists at Berkeley, [[Michael Stonebraker]] and [[Eugene Wong]], became interested in the concept after reading the papers, and started a relational database research project of their own.<ref name=UniversityINGRES>{{cite journal
|quote=University INGRES had three client applications: the terminal monitor, EQUEL C, and GeoQUEL.
|doi=10.1109/MAHC.2012.51
|title=History of the Ingres Corporation
|author=L.A. Rowe  |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
|volume=34
|issue=4
|pages=58–70
|date=2012|s2cid=16078334
}}</ref><ref name="rdbmsearlyyearsoh20070612">{{Cite interview |interviewer=Burton Grad |title=RDBMS Plenary 1: Early Years |url=https://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2013/05/102702562-05-01-acc.pdf |pages=30-31 |access-date=2025-05-30 |publisher=Computer History Museum |date=2007-06-12}}</ref><ref name="rdbmsingressybase20070613">{{Cite interview |interviewer=Doug Jerger |title=RDBMS Workshop: Ingres and Sybase |url=https://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2013/05/102702565-05-01-acc.pdf |access-date=2025-05-30 |publisher=Computer History Museum |date=2007-06-13}}</ref>

They had already raised money for researching a geographic database system for Berkeley's economics group, which they called '''Ingres''', for '''IN'''teractive '''G'''raphics '''RE'''trieval '''S'''ystem. They decided to use this money to fund their relational project instead, and used this as a seed for a new and much larger project. They decided to re-use the original project name, and the new project became ''University INGRES''.<ref name=UniversityINGRES/> For further funding, Stonebraker approached the [[DARPA]], the obvious funding source for computing research and development at the time, but both the DARPA and the [[Office of Naval Research]] (ONR) turned them down<ref>{{cite book |quote=In search of further support, Stonebraker approached the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)"
|title=The Rise of Relational Databases
|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/6323/chapter/8|doi=10.17226/6323
|isbn=978-0-309-06278-7
|year=1999
}}</ref> as they were already funding database research elsewhere. Stonebraker then introduced his idea to other agencies, and, with help from his colleagues he eventually obtained modest support from the [[National Science Foundation|NSF]]<ref>NSF Funding#s, over time= 0205445, 8715235, 0844480, 0848727, 9116860 {{cite web
|quote=DEC has provided the researchers funded under this grant with the equipment ...
|url=https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=
|title=NSF Award Search: Award#9116860 - Design of ...}}</ref> and three military agencies: the [[Air Force Office of Scientific Research]], the [[Army Research Office]], and the [[Naval Electronic Systems Command]].

Thus funded, Ingres was developed during the mid-1970s by a rotating team of students and staff. Ingres went through an evolution similar to that of [[IBM System R]], with an early prototype in 1974 followed by major revisions to make the code maintainable. Ingres was then disseminated to a small user community, and project members rewrote the prototype repeatedly to incorporate accumulated experience, feedback from users, and new ideas. The research project ended in 1985.<ref name="UCBerkley" />

===Commercialization (1980s)===
Ingres remained largely similar to IBM's System R in concept, but it was based largely on [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] machines running
[[Unix]].<ref name=Woodfill79/> Unlike System R, Ingres benefited from Unix's growing popularity and was available for free;{{r|rdbmsearlyyearsoh20070612}} source code was available (on tape) for a nominal fee. By 1980 some 1,000 copies had been distributed,<ref>{{cite book
  |title=The Rise of Relational Databases - Funding a Revolution |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/6323/chapter/8|doi=10.17226/6323|isbn=978-0-309-06278-7|year=1999}}</ref> primarily to universities. Many students from Berkeley and other universities who used the Ingres source code worked on various commercial database software systems.

Many asked when Ingres would become a commercial product. After hearing that [[Larry Ellison]] was comparing the [[Oracle Database]] to Ingres, the project formed a commercial company, borrowed university computers in exchange for a free license, and ported the database from Unix to [[VAX VMS]]. The The first product release occurred in early 1981; among the customers were [[DEC (company)|DEC]] and [[Schlumberger]]. Demand for the VMS version was so much stronger than on Unix that the company neglected the latter and had to port the software back to it.{{r|rdbmsingressybase20070613}}

Berkeley students Jerry Held and later Karel Youseffi moved to [[Tandem Computers]], where they built a database system that evolved into [[NonStop SQL]]. The Tandem database system was a re-implementation of the Ingres technology.<ref>{{cite web
|quote=Youseffi (at Tandem Computers) built a system that evolved into NonStop SQL. The Tandem database system was a re-implementation of the Ingres technology.
|title=Capt. Horatio T.P. Webb MIS 4372 Database Alternatives
|url=https://www.bauer.uh.edu/parks/dbhistory.htm}}</ref> It evolved into a system that ran effectively on [[parallel computer]]s; that is, it included functionality for distributed data, distributed execution, and distributed transactions (the last being fairly difficult). Components of the system were first released in the late 1970s. By 1989, the system could run queries in parallel and the product became fairly famous for being one of the few systems that scales almost linearly with the number of processors in the machine: adding a second CPU to an existing NonStop SQL server will almost exactly double its performance. Tandem was later purchased by [[Compaq]], which started a re-write in 2000, and now the product is at [[Hewlett Packard Enterprise|Hewlett-Packard Enterprise]].

In the early 1980s, Ingres competed head-to-head with [[Oracle database|Oracle]],<ref>{{cite journal
|quote=This article traces the development of the Oracle RDBMS through the mainframe, ... innovations that allowed Oracle to compete so successfully in the market
|title=The Oracle Story: 1984 – 2001  |author=Andrew Mendelsohn
|journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=10–23 |doi=10.1109/MAHC.2012.56|year=2013 |s2cid=17907189 }}</ref> but IBM's endorsement of SQL benefited Oracle.<ref name="morgenthaler20051208">{{Cite interview |last=Morgenthaler |first=Gary |interviewer=Luann Johnson |title=Oral History of Gary Morgenthaler |url=https://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/text/Oral_History/Morgenthaler_Gary/Morgenthaler_Gary_1.oral_history.2005.102658005.pdf |access-date=2025-05-30 |format=PDF |publisher=Computer History Museum |date=2005-12-08 |page=18}}</ref> The two products were widely regarded as the leading hardware-independent relational database implementations; they had comparable functionality, performance, market share, and pricing, and many commentators considered Ingres to be a (perhaps marginally) superior product. From around 1985, however, Ingres steadily lost market share. One reason was Oracle's aggressive marketing; another was the increasing recognition of SQL as the preferred relational query language. Ingres originally had provided a different language, [[QUEL query languages|QUEL]], and the conversion to SQL (delivered in Ingres version 6) took about three years, losing valuable time in the race.

Robert Epstein, the chief programmer on the project while he was at Berkeley, formed [[Britton Lee, Inc.]]<ref>{{cite book  |date=1999
|quote=Robert Epstein, the chief programmer at Ingres in the 1970s, went on to co-found Britton-Lee Incorporated and then Sybase.
|title=Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research
|url=https://archive.org/details/fundingrevolutio00nati  |url-access=registration
|isbn=978-0309062787|last1=Council
|first1=National Research
|last2=Board
|first2=Computer Science Telecommunications
|last3=History
|first3=Committee on Innovations in Computing Communications: Lessons From
}}</ref> along with other students from the Ingres Project, [[Paula Hawthorn]] and Michael Ubell; they were joined later by [[Eric Allman]]. Later, Epstein founded [[Sybase]]. Sybase had been the #2 product (behind [[Oracle database|Oracle]]) for some time through the 1980s and into the 1990s, before [[Informix]] came "out of nowhere" and took over in 1997. Sybase's product line had also been licensed to [[Microsoft]] in 1992, who rebranded it as [[Microsoft SQL Server]]. This relationship soured in the late 1990s, and today SQL Server outsells Sybase by a wide margin.

===Relational Technologies, Inc. (RTI)===
Several companies used the Ingres source code to produce products. The most successful was a company named [[Relational Technology, Inc.]] (RTI), founded in 1980 by Stonebraker and Wong, and another Berkeley professor, Lawrence A. Rowe.<ref>{{cite web |title=Eugene Wong  |website=EECS at UC Berkeley
|url=https://www2.eecs.berkeley.edu/Faculty/Homepages/wong.html
|quote=Eugene Wong ... In 1980 he co-founded (with Michael Stonebraker and Lawrence A. Rowe) ... Relational Technology, Inc., later renamed the INGRES Corporation}}</ref> RTI was renamed Ingres Corporation in the late 1980s. The company ported the code to DEC [[VAX/VMS]], which was the commercial [[operating system]] for [[DEC VAX]] computers. They also developed a collection of front-end tools for creating and manipulating databases (e.g., reporterwriters, forms entry and update, etc.) and application development tools. Over time, much of the source was rewritten to add functionality (for example, multiple-statement transactions, SQL, B-tree access method, date/time datatypes, etc.) and improve performance (for example, compiled queries, multithreaded server).

Project Jewel was an early prototype of abstract data types. Ingres was the first database to be certified as a "Rainbow Book" B2 certified database, as such it was adopted by the US National Laboratories (Los Alamos, Livermore, Sandia) for storage for the design of Nuclear weapons. It was also deployed by the CIA. Support needs for highly classified air gapped systems led to the creation of an Expert System for problem resolution hosted on the DARPA network.

After DEC withdrew from a planned investment in Ingres,{{r|rdbmsfinancing20070612}} the company was purchased by [[ASK Corporation]] in November 1990.  The founders left the company over the next several months.

===Computer Associates===
{{more citations needed|date=January 2024}}
In 1994, ASK/Ingres was purchased by [[Computer Associates]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/newsday-nassau-edition/139249472/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240121183442/https://www.newspapers.com/article/newsday-nassau-edition/139249472/|title=CA Takeover Leads to Egress At Ingres Corp|newspaper=[[Newsday (Nassau Edition)|Newsday]]|page=59|archivedate=January 21, 2024|date=June 30, 1994|accessdate=January 21, 2024|via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-06-30-fi-10401-story.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240121183714/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-06-30-fi-10401-story.html|title=Technology|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|archivedate=January 21, 2024|date=June 30, 1994|accessdate=January 21, 2024}}</ref>

In February 2000, Computer Associates announced the general availability of Ingres II 2.0 for Linux. Besides the components found in the SDK, the full edition contains more modules, such as:
* Net: this component makes possible for Ingres utilities and user applications to access databases residing on different installations.
* Replicator: support for replication functions.
* Star: for handling distributed databases.
* Enterprise Access: communication with different database management systems and other, non-relational data sources (used to be called Gateways).
* Protocol Bridge: for communicating with clients on different types of networks.
* Spatial Object Library: for handling two-dimensional spatial objects.

Ingres versions 6.4 and Ingres II have long been a commonly used database management system (DBMS), mainly in data center operations at universities and other public bodies. For a while, it was still able to resist Oracle's dominance due to low licensing costs.

In addition to the low license fees, Ingres II had the advantage of lower resource requirements over Oracle, for example, which is why it could also be used on smaller machines. Disadvantages were the more difficult usability, the lower number of platforms on which this system ran and fewer Ingres-capable applications.

On the grounds that the performance of Ingres was comparable to that of other large DBMS, Computer Associates raised the license fees sharply, thereby losing a key advantage over Oracle. Insufficient marketing by Computer Associates and the resulting lack of sales as well as a lack of IT technicians who master this system and who could be called on when necessary were partly responsible for a decline in marketshare. As a result, Ingres installations were increasingly replaced by Oracle implementations (only about 15,000 installations worldwide in 2004).

In 2004, Computer Associates (CA) released Ingres R3 under CA Trusted Open Source License (CATOSL), an [[open source license]]. The code includes the DBMS server and utilities and the character-based front-end and application-development tools.  In essence, it shipped everything except [[OpenROAD]], the Windows 4GL GUI-based development environment.

===Ingres Corporation===
In November 2005, Garnett & Helfrich Capital, in partnership with [[Computer Associates]], created a new company called Ingres Corporation, which provided support and services for Ingres, OpenROAD, and the connectivity products.

In February 2006, Ingres Corporation released Ingres 2006 under the [[GNU General Public License|GNU General Public Licence]].
Ingres 9.3 was released on October 7, 2009.<ref name="ingres-9.3-press-release">{{Cite news |title= Ingres Database 9.3 Takes Aim At Competitors With Easy Migration Path |work= Press release |date= October 7, 2009 |publisher= Ingres Corporation |url=http://www.ingres.com/about/press/09-1007-database.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091010040541/http://www.ingres.com/about/press/09-1007-database.php |archive-date= October 10, 2009 |access-date= December 5, 2013 }}</ref> It was a limited release targeted at new application development on Linux and Windows only.<ref name="ingres-9.3">{{cite web|url=http://esd.ingres.com/product/Ingres_Database/9.3|title=ESD - Electronic Software Distribution|website=esd.ingres.com|access-date=2009-11-17|archive-date=2009-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091215010730/http://esd.ingres.com/product/Ingres_Database/9.3|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The company focused on the open-source community, with the following initiatives:

* Community Bundles – Alliances with other open-source providers and projects, such as Alfresco, JasperSoft, Hibernate, Apache Tomcat, and Eclipse, enable Ingres to provide its platform and technology with other open-source technologies.
** Ingres Icebreaker BI: in 2007, Ingres Corporation partnered with [[Jaspersoft]] and rPath start-up to release this business intelligence software based appliance.<ref>[http://www.ingres.com/products/icebreaker-bi-appliance.php Icebreaker BI {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100114002247/http://www.ingres.com/products/icebreaker-bi-appliance.php |date=2010-01-14 }}</ref> It consisted of the Ingres 2006 database with [https://distrowatch.com/table.php?distribution=rpath rPath Linux] and business intelligence tools from JasperSoft.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ingres breaks ice with JasperSoft |url=https://www.theregister.com/2007/08/23/ingres_jaspersoft_appliance/ |date=2007-08-23|access-date=2023-05-13}}</ref> Although it included no hardware, Ingres called it an appliance because all the components of the software stack were tightly integrated and the company supported all the software itself.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ingres launches Icebreaker BI Appliance
|url=https://www.networkworld.com/article/2294254/ingres-launches-icebreaker-bi-appliance.html|date=2007-08-22|access-date=2023-05-13}}</ref>
** Ingres CAFÉ (Consolidated Application Foundation for Eclipse), created by a team of developers at Carleton University, is an integrated environment that helps software architects accelerate and simplify Java application development.<ref>[http://community.ingres.com/wiki/CAFÉ Ingres CAFÉ]</ref>
* Ingres Geospatial was community-based project to create industry-standards-compliant geospatial storage features in the Ingres DBMS. In other words, for storing map data and providing powerful analysis functions within the DBMS.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://community.ingres.com/wiki/IngresGeospatial|title=Actian - Hybrid Data Management & Integration|website=Actian}}</ref>
* Established by Ingres and [[Carleton University]], a series of Open Source Boot Camps were held in 2008 to work with other open-source communities and projects to introduce university and college students and staff to the concepts and realities of open source.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Open Source Boot Camp |work= Old web site |url=http://www.osbootcamp.org/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407212741/http://www.osbootcamp.org/ |archive-date= April 7, 2008 |access-date= December 5, 2013 }}</ref>
* Other involvement includes: Global Ingres University Alliances, Ingres Engineering Summit, Ingres Janitors Project and several memberships in open-source initiatives.

Ingres 10 was released on October 12, 2010,  as a full release, supporting upgrade from earlier versions of the product.<ref name="ingres-10-press-release">{{Cite news |title=Ingres Database 10 Pulls Out All Stops With Further Migration and Performance Enhancements|work= Press release |date= October 12, 2010 |publisher= Ingres Corporation |url=http://www.ingres.com/about/press/10-1012-database.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101107053436/http://www.ingres.com/about/press/10-1012-database.php |archive-date= November 7, 2010 |access-date= December 5, 2013 }}</ref> It was available on 32-bit and 64-bit [[Linux]], and 32-bit [[Microsoft Windows]].<ref name="ingres10">{{Cite web |title=Ingres Database |work= Former download web page |publisher= Ingres Corporation |url=http://www.ingres.com/downloads/ingres-database.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923145027/http://ingres.com/downloads/ingres-database.php |archive-date= September 23, 2010 |access-date= December 5, 2013 }}</ref>

In November 2010 Garnett & Helfrich Capital acquired the last 20% of equity in Ingres Corp that it did not already own.<ref>{{Cite news |title= CA Technologies sells last of Ingres stake |date= November 9, 2010 |work= Silicon Valley Business Journal |url=http://www.bizjournals.com/sanjose/news/2010/11/09/ca-tech-sells-remaining-ingres-stake.html |access-date= December 7, 2013 }}</ref>

===Actian===
{{Main|Actian}}
On September 22, 2011, Ingres Corporation became Actian Corporation, focusing on data management and integration technologies, including [[Vectorwise]]/Vector, [[Btrieve]]/[[Pervasive PSQL]]/Zen, [[OpenROAD]] and the Ingres database.

Actian was acquired by [[HCL Technologies]] and Sumeru Equity Partners for $330 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bseindia.com/corporates/anndet_new.aspx?newsid=ff975b0d-3674-4831-8e35-4dab2c936f60|title=Announcement under Regulation 30 (LODR)-Updates on Acquisition|date=July 18, 2018|website=bseindia.com}}</ref> In 2021, HCL Technologies became the sole owner of Actian, which became the Data and Analytics division of HCLSoftware.

On 18 April 2017, Actian X was announced as the first natively integrated hybrid database, designed to manage transactional, analytic and hybrid data workloads from a single database.<ref>{{cite web|title=Actian Hybrid Data Solutions Power the Digital Enterprise|url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20170418005463/en/Actian-Hybrid-Data-Solutions-Power-Digital-Enterprise|website=www.businesswire.com|language=en|date=2017-04-18}}</ref>

Actian X combines the features and capabilities of Ingres and Vector, including column-based storage, vector processing, multi-core parallelism (and more):<ref>{{Cite news |title= Introducing Actian X – the new Ingres
 |date= April 27, 2017 |url=https://www.actian.com/blog/data-management/introducing-actian-x-new-ingres/ |access-date= April 10, 2023 }}</ref>
* DataConnect 11 for Actian X: DataConnect is an end-to-end application integration solution for designing and deploying data integration with Ingres applications. The bundle included a GUI and development engine, for designing and testing integrations, and a production engine for deployment.
* Enterprise Monitoring Appliance (EMA): helps maintain the health of databases and host systems by monitoring and setting alerts for key system functions like disk usage, I/O performance, transaction log files and network latency. EMA provides early warnings and alerts so problems and potential problems can be quickly resolved.
* Cloud Backup Service: a scalable, secure managed service for storing and managing Ingres backups. More than file or system backup, the service is designed with tight Ingres integration. Backup agents monitor Ingres for checkpoints and journals, and transfer them to cloud storage automatically ensuring consistent backups and successful restores.
* Geospatial: Several geospatial enhancements, highlighted by the [[ArcGIS]] plug-in for ESRI, which enables ArcGIS desktop tools to visualize and manipulate Ingres geospatial data. Added 3D support for R-Tree indexes and in-line geospatial functions improves query performance and greatly simplifies coding for geospatial features.
* New features and enhancements: MERGE support, a reuse heuristic for query optimization, compression of network communications, automatic log file rotation, [[Binary large object|blob]] encryption, etc.

In 2024, Actian decided to withdraw the Actian X brand, making all its features and capabilities available to Ingres 12.0.