Editing Inner German border (section)

==Development of the inner German border==
{{Further|Development of the inner German border|Inner German relations}}

===Origins===
[[Image:Germany occupation zones with border.jpg|right|thumb|320px|alt=Map showing the Allied zones of occupation in post-war Germany, as well as the line of U.S. forward positions on V-E Day. The south-western part of the Soviet occupation zone, close to a third of its overall area was west of the U.S. forward positions on V-E day.|The Allied zones of occupation in post-war Germany, highlighting the Soviet zone (red), the inner German border (heavy black line) and the zone from which British and American troops withdrew in July 1945 (purple). The provincial boundaries are those of pre-Nazi [[Weimar Germany]], before the present ''[[Länder]]'' (federal states) were established.]]

The inner German border originated from the [[Allies of World War II|Second World War Allies']] plans to divide a defeated Germany into occupation zones.<ref name="Buchholz-56">[[#Buchholz|Buchholz (1994)]], p. 56.</ref> The boundaries between these zones were drawn along the territorial boundaries of 19th-century German states and provinces that had largely disappeared with the [[unification of Germany]] in 1871.<ref>[[#Faringdon|Faringdon (1986)]], p. 282.</ref> Three zones were agreed on, each covering roughly a third of Germany's territories: a [[British Occupation zone of Germany|British zone]] in the north-west, an [[American Occupation of Germany|American zone]] in the south and a [[Soviet occupation zone|Soviet zone]] in the east. France was later given a [[Monnet plan|zone]] in the far west of Germany, carved out of the British and American zones.<ref>[[#Weinberg|Weinberg (1995)]], p. 804.</ref>

The division of Germany was official on 1&nbsp;August 1945. Because of the unexpectedly rapid Allied advances through central Germany in the final weeks of the war, British and American troops occupied large areas of territory that had been assigned to the Soviet zone of occupation. The redeployment of Western troops prompted many Germans to flee west to escape the Russians' takeover of the remainder of the Soviet zone.<ref>[[#Shears|Shears (1970)]], p. 29.</ref>

The wartime Allies initially worked together under the auspices of the [[Allied Control Council]] (ACC) for Germany.<ref>[[#Osmanczyk|Osmańczyk; Mango (2004)]], p. 77.</ref>  Cooperation between the Western Allies and the Soviets ultimately broke down because of disagreements over Germany's political and economic future. In May 1949, the three western occupation zones were merged to form the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), a [[capitalist state]] with [[free and fair election]]s. The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (GDR), a [[communist state]] where voters were restricted to electing communist candidates.<ref>[[#Shears|Shears (1970)]], p. 36.</ref>

From the outset, [[West Germany]] and the western Allies rejected [[East Germany]]'s legitimacy.<ref>Joint statement of the Allied powers, 3 October 1954, quoted in [[#Kindermann|Kindermann (1994)]], pp. 220–21.</ref> The creation of East Germany was deemed a communist ''fait accompli'', without a freely or fairly elected government. West Germany regarded German citizenship and rights as applying equally to East and West German citizens. An East German who escaped or was released to the West was automatically granted West German rights, including residence and the right to work; West German laws were deemed to be applicable in the East. East Germans thus had a powerful incentive to move to the West, where they would enjoy greater freedom and economic prospects.<ref name="Gress">[[#Gress|Gress (1985)]], pp. 15–16.</ref>
The East German government sought to define the country as a legitimate state in its own right<ref>[[#Loth|Loth (2004)]], p. 274.</ref> and portrayed West Germany as enemy territory (''feindliches Ausland'')&nbsp;– a capitalist, semi-[[fascist]] state that exploited its citizens, sought to regain the lost territories of the [[Third Reich]], and stood opposed to the peaceful socialism of the GDR.<ref>[[#Schweitzer|Schweitzer (1995)]], p. 50.</ref>

===1945–52: the "Green Border"===
In the early days of the occupation, the Allies controlled traffic [[interzonal traffic|between the zones]] to manage the flow of refugees and prevent the escape of former [[Nazi]] officials and intelligence officers.<ref>[[#Stacy|Stacy (1984)]], p. 6.</ref> These controls were gradually lifted in the Western zones, but were tightened between Western and Soviet zones in 1946 to stem a flow of economic and political refugees from the Soviet zone.<ref>[[#Stacy|Stacy (1984)]], p. 9.</ref> Between October 1945 and June 1946, 1.6&nbsp;million Germans left the Soviet zone for the west.<ref>[[#Stacy|Stacy (1984)]], p. 8.</ref>

The east–west interzonal border became steadily more tense as the relationship between the Western Allies and the Soviets deteriorated.<ref>[[#Stacy|Stacy (1984)]], p. 31–32.</ref> From September 1947, an increasingly strict regime was imposed on the eastern Soviet zone boundary. The number of Soviet soldiers on the boundary was increased and supplemented with border guards from the newly established East German ''[[Volkspolizei]]'' ("People's Police"). Many unofficial crossing points were blocked with ditches and barricades.<ref>[[#Stacy|Stacy (1984)]], p. 40.</ref> The West Germans also stepped up security with the establishment in 1952 of the Federal Border Protection force of 20,000 men;&nbsp;– the ''[[Bundesgrenzschutz]]'', or BGS&nbsp;– however, Allied troops (the British in the north, the Americans in the south) retained responsibility for the military security of the border.<ref>[[#Stacy|Stacy (1984)]], pp. 67, 69.</ref>

The boundary line was nonetheless still fairly easy to cross. Local inhabitants were able to maintain fields on the other side, or even to live on one side and work on the other. Refugees were able to sneak across or bribe the guards, and the smuggling of goods in both directions was rife.<ref name="Berdahl">[[#Berdahl|Berdahl (1999)]], p. 144.</ref> The flow of emigrants remained large despite the increase in East German security measures: 675,000&nbsp;people fled to West Germany between 1949 and 1952.<ref name="Cramer-15">[[#Cramer|Cramer (2008)]], p. 15.</ref>
<div class="center">{{Gallery
|title=Phases of development of the inner German border
|width=176
|height=154
|Bundesarchiv Bild 183-N0415-365, Grenze zwischen Thüringen und Bayern bei Asbach.jpg|The border before fortification: inter-zonal barrier near Asbach in Thuringia, 1950
|Innerdeutsche Grenze Priwall 1961.jpg|Inner German border at [[Priwall Peninsula|Priwall]] ([[Baltic Sea]] [[coast]]), July 1961
|East German border 1962 full.jpg|The newly strengthened border in 1962 in the [[Borderland Museum Eichsfeld|Eichsfeld]] region, with barbed-wire fences, watchtowers and minefields
}}</div>

===1952–67: the "Special Regime"===
The relative openness of the border ended abruptly on 26&nbsp;May 1952 when the GDR implemented a "special regime on the demarcation line", justified as a measure to keep out "spies, diversionists, terrorists and smugglers".<ref name="Stacy-50">[[#Stacy|Stacy (1984)]], p. 50.</ref> The East German move was taken to limit the continuing exodus of its citizens, which threatened the viability of the GDR's economy.<ref>[[#Shears|Shears (1970)]], p. 37.</ref>

A ploughed strip 10&nbsp;m (32.8&nbsp;ft) wide was created along the entire length of the inner German border. An adjoining "protective strip" (''Schutzstreifen'') 500&nbsp;m (1,640&nbsp;ft) wide was placed under tight control. A "restricted zone" (''Sperrzone'') a further 5&nbsp;km (3.1&nbsp;mile) wide was created in which only those holding a special permit could live or work. Trees and brush were cut down along the border to clear lines of sight for the guards and to eliminate cover for would-be crossers. Houses adjoining the border were torn down, bridges were closed and barbed-wire fencing was put up in many places. Farmers were permitted to work their fields along the border only in daylight hours and under the watch of armed guards, who were authorised to use weapons if their orders were not obeyed.<ref name="Stacy-50" />

Border communities on both sides suffered acute disruption. Farms, coal mines and even houses were split in two by the sudden closure of the border.<ref>[[#ManchesterGuardian|''Manchester Guardian'' (1952-06-09)]]</ref><ref>[[#Cramer|Cramer (2008)]], p. 143.</ref> More than 8,300 East German civilians living along the border were forcibly resettled in a programme codenamed "Operation Vermin" (''Aktion Ungeziefer'').<ref>[[#Berdahl|Berdahl (1999)]], p. 67.</ref> Another 3,000&nbsp;residents, realising they were about to be expelled from their homes, fled to the West.<ref name="Cramer-15" /> The seal around the country was expanded in July 1962 when the GDR declared its entire [[Baltic Sea|Baltic coast]] a border zone subject to closures and restrictions.<ref name="Times-Baltic">[[#TimesBaltic|''The Times'' (1962-07-21)]].</ref>

The border between East and West Berlin was also significantly tightened, although not fully closed; East Germans were still able to cross into West Berlin, which then became the main route by which East Germans migrated to the West.<ref name="Maddrell">[[#Maddrell|Maddrell (2006)]], pp. 54, 56.</ref> Between 1949&nbsp;and the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961, an estimated 3.5&nbsp;million East Germans&nbsp;– a sixth of the entire population&nbsp;– emigrated to the West, most via Berlin.<ref name="Maddrell" />

===1967–89: the "Modern Frontier"===
[[File:BGS-Hubschrauber Alouette II.jpg|thumb|250px|alt=Green-painted helicopter with "Bundesgrenzschutz" on the side flies parallel to a border fence with a gate in it, behind which are two East German soldiers and a canvas-sided truck.|A ''Bundesgrenzschutz'' [[Alouette II]] helicopter patrols the West German side of the inner German border, 1985.]]
The GDR decided to upgrade the fortifications in the late 1960s to establish a "modern frontier" that would be far more difficult to cross. Barbed-wire fences were replaced with harder-to-climb [[expanded metal]] barriers; directional anti-personnel mines and anti-vehicle ditches blocked the movement of people and vehicles; tripwires and electric signals helped guards to detect escapees; all-weather patrol roads enabled rapid access to any point along the border; and wooden guard towers were replaced with prefabricated concrete towers and observation bunkers.<ref name="Rottman-20"/>

Construction of the new border system started in September 1967.<ref name="Stacy-185">[[#Stacy|Stacy (1984)]], p. 185.</ref> Nearly {{convert|1300|km|0}} of new fencing was built, usually further back from the geographical line than the old barbed-wire fences.<ref name="Rottman-20" /> The upgrade programme continued well into the 1980s.<ref>[[#Stacy|Stacy (1984)]], p. 189.</ref> The new system immediately reduced the number of successful escapes from around 1,000&nbsp;people a year in the mid-1960s to only about 120 per year a decade later.<ref name="Mulligan">[[#Mulligan|Mulligan (1976-10-28)]].</ref>

The introduction of West German Chancellor [[Willy Brandt]]'s ''[[Ostpolitik]]'' ("Eastern Policy") at the end of the 1960s reduced tensions between the two German states. It led to a series of treaties and agreements in the early 1970s, most significantly a treaty in which East and West Germany recognised each other's sovereignty and supported each other's applications for UN membership, although neither state changed its view on the citizenship issue.<ref>Official presentation of the text of the treaty as given by the United States - Department of State - ''Documents on Germany 1944-1985'' ( Washington: Department of State, [s.d], pp. 1215-1217 ), reproduced  here: [http://www.ena.lu/basic-treaty-21-december-1972-020302440.html]</ref>&nbsp; Reunification remained a theoretical objective for West Germany, but in practice that objective was put aside by the West and abandoned entirely by the East.<ref>[[#Stacy|Stacy (1984)]], p. 176.</ref> New crossing points were established and East German crossing regulations were slightly relaxed, although the fortifications were as rigorously maintained as ever.<ref name="Jarausch-17"/>

In 1988, the GDR leadership considered proposals to replace the expensive and intrusive fortifications with a high-technology system codenamed ''Grenze 2000''. Drawing on technology used by the [[Red Army|Soviet army]] during the [[Soviet-Afghan War|Soviet–Afghan War]], it would have replaced the fences with sensors and detectors. However, the plan was never implemented.<ref>[[#MullerEnbergs|Müller-Enbergs (1988)]], p. 437.</ref><ref>[[#Koop|Koop (1996)]], p.</ref>