Editing Intelligence quotient (section)

==History==
{{see also|History of the race and intelligence controversy}}

===Precursors to IQ testing===
Historically, even before IQ tests were devised, there were attempts to classify people into [[Human intelligence|intelligence]] categories by observing their behavior in daily life.<ref name="TermanOldClasses" /><ref name="WechslerOldClasses" /> Those other forms of behavioral observation are still important for validating classifications based primarily on IQ test scores. Both intelligence classification by observation of behavior outside the testing room and classification by IQ testing depend on the definition of "intelligence" used in a particular case and on the [[Reliability (psychometrics)|reliability]] and error of estimation in the classification procedure.

The English statistician [[Francis Galton]] (1822–1911) made the first attempt at creating a standardized test for rating a person's intelligence. A pioneer of [[psychometrics]] and the application of statistical methods to the study of human diversity and the study of inheritance of human traits, he believed that intelligence was largely a product of heredity (by which he did not mean [[History of genetics#Post-Mendel, pre-re-discovery|genes]], although he did develop several [[Mendelian inheritance|pre-Mendelian]] theories of particulate inheritance).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bulmer |first1=M |year=1999 |title=The development of Francis Galton's ideas on the mechanism of heredity |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=263–292 | doi = 10.1023/a:1004608217247 |pmid=11624207 |s2cid=10451997}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cowan |first1=R. S. |year=1972 |title=Francis Galton's contribution to genetics |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=389–412 |doi=10.1007/bf00346665|pmid=11610126 |s2cid=30206332}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Burbridge |first1=D |year=2001 |title=Francis Galton on twins, heredity and social class |journal=British Journal for the History of Science |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=323–340 |doi=10.1017/s0007087401004332|pmid=11700679}}</ref> He hypothesized that there should exist a correlation between intelligence and other observable traits such as [[reflex]]es, muscle grip, and [[Craniometry#Bertillon, Galton and criminology|head size]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fancher |first1=R. E. |year=1983 |title=Biographical origins of Francis Galton's psychology |journal=Isis |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=227–233 |doi=10.1086/353245|pmid=6347965|s2cid=40565053 }}</ref> He set up the first mental testing center in the world in 1882 and he published "Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development" in 1883, in which he set out his theories. After gathering data on a variety of physical variables, he was unable to show any such correlation, and he eventually abandoned this research.<ref name="Kaufman2009p21" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gillham |first1=Nicholas W. |title=Sir Francis Galton and the birth of eugenics |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=83–101 |year=2001 |pmid=11700278 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genet.35.102401.090055}}</ref>
[[File:Alfred Binet.jpg|thumb|upright|Psychologist [[Alfred Binet]], co-developer of the [[Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales|Stanford–Binet test]]]]
French psychologist [[Alfred Binet]] and psychiatrist [[Théodore Simon]], had more success in 1905, when they published the [[Binet-Simon Intelligence Test|Binet–Simon Intelligence test]], which focused on verbal abilities.<ref name=":15" /> It was intended to identify "mental retardation" in school children,<ref name=Kaufman2009/> but in specific contradistinction to claims made by psychiatrists that these children were "sick" (not "slow") and should therefore be removed from school and cared for in asylums.<ref name=":15">{{cite journal |last1=Nicolas |first1=S. |last2=Andrieu |first2=B. |last3=Croizet |first3=J.-C. |last4=Sanitioso |first4=R. B. |last5=Burman |first5=J. T. |year=2013 |title=Sick? Or slow? On the origins of intelligence as a psychological object |journal=Intelligence |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=699–711 |doi=10.1016/j.intell.2013.08.006 |doi-access=free}} (This is an [[open access]] article, made freely available by [[Elsevier]].)</ref> The score on the Binet–Simon scale would reveal the child's [[mental age]]. For example, a six-year-old child who passed all the tasks usually passed by six-year-olds—but nothing beyond—would have a mental age that matched his chronological age, 6.0. (Fancher, 1985). Binet and Simon thought that intelligence was multifaceted, but came under the control of practical judgment.

In Binet and Simon's view, there were limitations with the scale and they stressed what they saw as the remarkable diversity of intelligence and the subsequent need to study it using qualitative, as opposed to quantitative, measures (White, 2000). American psychologist [[Henry H. Goddard]] published a translation of it in 1910. American psychologist [[Lewis Terman]] at [[Stanford University]] revised the Binet–Simon scale, which resulted in the [[Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales|Stanford revision of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale]] (1916). It became the most popular test in the United States for decades.<ref name=Kaufman2009/>{{sfn|Terman et al.|1915}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallin |first1=J. E. W. |title=The new clinical psychology and the psycho-clinicist |journal=Journal of Educational Psychology |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=121–32 |year=1911 |doi=10.1037/h0075544 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1429171}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Richardson |first1=John T. E. |title=Howard Andrew Knox and the origins of performance testing on Ellis Island, 1912-1916 |journal=History of Psychology |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=143–70 |year=2003 |pmid=12822554 |doi=10.1037/1093-4510.6.2.143}}</ref>

The abbreviation "IQ" was coined by the [[psychologist]] [[William Stern (psychologist)|William Stern]] for the [[German language|German]] term {{lang|de|Intelligenzquotient}}, his term for a scoring method for [[intelligence]] tests at [[University of Wrocław|University of Breslau]] he advocated in a 1912 book.{{sfn|Stern|1914|pp=70–84 (1914 English translation); pp. 48–58 (1912 original German edition)}}

===General factor (''g'')===
{{main|g factor (psychometrics)|l1=''g'' factor}}
The many different kinds of IQ tests include a wide variety of item content. Some test items are visual, while many are verbal. Test items vary from being based on abstract-reasoning problems to concentrating on arithmetic, vocabulary, or general knowledge.

The British psychologist [[Charles Spearman]] in 1904 made the first formal [[factor analysis]] of [[correlation]]s between the tests. He observed that children's school grades across seemingly unrelated school subjects were positively correlated, and reasoned that these correlations reflected the influence of an underlying general mental ability that entered into performance on all kinds of mental tests. He suggested that all mental performance could be conceptualized in terms of a single general ability factor and a large number of narrow task-specific ability factors. Spearman named it ''g'' for "general factor" and labeled the specific factors or abilities for specific tasks ''s''.{{sfn|Deary|2001|pp=6–12}} In any collection of test items that make up an IQ test, the score that best measures ''g'' is the composite score that has the highest correlations with all the item scores. Typically, the "''g''-loaded" composite score of an IQ test battery appears to involve a common strength in abstract reasoning across the test's item content.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}}

===United States military selection in World War I===
During World War I, the Army needed a way to evaluate and assign recruits to appropriate tasks. This led to the development of several mental tests by [[Robert Yerkes]], who worked with major hereditarians of American psychometrics—including Terman, Goddard—to write the test.<ref name=Gould>{{harvnb|Gould|1996}}</ref> The testing generated controversy and much public debate in the United States. Nonverbal or "performance" tests were developed for those who could not speak English or were suspected of malingering.<ref name=Kaufman2009/> Based on Goddard's translation of the Binet–Simon test, the tests had an impact in screening men for officer training:

<blockquote>...the tests did have a strong impact in some areas, particularly in screening men for officer training. At the start of the war, the army and national guard maintained nine thousand officers. By the end, two hundred thousand officers presided, and two- thirds of them had started their careers in training camps where the tests were applied. In some camps, no man scoring below C could be considered for officer training.<ref name=Gould/></blockquote>

In total 1.75 million men were tested, making the results the first mass-produced written tests of intelligence, though considered dubious and non-usable, for reasons including high variability of test implementation throughout different camps and questions testing for familiarity with American culture rather than intelligence.<ref name=Gould/> After the war, positive publicity promoted by army psychologists helped to make psychology a respected field.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Carrie H. |last1=Kennedy |first2=Jeffrey A. |last2=McNeil |editor1-first=Carrie H. |editor1-last=Kennedy |editor2-first=Eric |editor2-last=Zillmer |year=2006 |chapter=A history of military psychology |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rytCzdXGgXkC&pg=PA1 |title=Military Psychology: Clinical and Operational Applications |pages=1–17 |location= New York |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-57230-724-7}}</ref> Subsequently, there was an increase in jobs and funding in psychology in the United States.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katzell |first1=Raymond A. |last2=Austin |first2=James T. |year=1992 |title=From then to now: The development of industrial-organizational psychology in the United States |journal=Journal of Applied Psychology |volume=77 |issue=6 |pages=803–35 |doi=10.1037/0021-9010.77.6.803}}</ref> Group intelligence tests were developed and became widely used in schools and industry.<ref name="Kevles, D. J. 1968">{{cite journal |last1=Kevles |first1=D. J. |title=Testing the Army's Intelligence: Psychologists and the Military in World War I |journal=The Journal of American History |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=565–81 |year=1968 |doi=10.2307/1891014 |jstor=1891014}}</ref>

The results of these tests, which at the time reaffirmed contemporary racism and nationalism, are considered controversial and dubious, having rested on certain contested assumptions: that intelligence was heritable, innate, and could be relegated to a single number, the tests were enacted systematically, and test questions actually tested for innate intelligence rather than subsuming environmental factors.<ref name=Gould/> The tests also bolstered [[Jingoism|jingoist narratives]] opposing the high rates of immigration at the time, which may have influenced the passing of the [[Immigration Act of 1924|Immigration Restriction Act of 1924]].<ref name=Gould/>

[[Louis Leon Thurstone|L.L. Thurstone]] argued for a model of intelligence that included seven unrelated factors (verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed, reasoning, and induction). While not widely used, Thurstone's model influenced later theories.<ref name=Kaufman2009/>

[[David Wechsler]] produced the first version of his test in 1939. It gradually became more popular and overtook the Stanford–Binet in the 1960s. It has been revised several times, as is common for IQ tests, to incorporate new research. One explanation is that psychologists and educators wanted more information than the single score from the Binet. Wechsler's ten or more subtests provided this. Another is that the Stanford–Binet test reflected mostly verbal abilities, while the Wechsler test also reflected nonverbal abilities. The Stanford–Binet has also been revised several times and is now similar to the Wechsler in several aspects, but the Wechsler continues to be the most popular test in the United States.<ref name=Kaufman2009/>

===IQ testing and the eugenics movement in the United States===
[[Eugenics]], a set of beliefs and practices aimed at improving the [[genetics|genetic]] quality of the [[human population]] by excluding people and groups judged to be inferior and promoting those judged to be superior,<ref name="Spektorowski">{{cite book|last1=Spektorowski|first1=Alberto|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zdkdAAAAQBAJ&q=Historically,+the+term+has+referred+to+everything+from+prenatal+care+for+mothers+to+forced+sterilization+and+euthanasia&pg=PA24|title=Politics of Eugenics: Productionism, Population, and National Welfare|last2=Ireni-Saban|first2=Liza|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-74023-1|location=London|page=24|quote=As an applied science, thus, the practice of eugenics referred to everything from prenatal care for mothers to forced sterilization and euthanasia. Galton divided the practice of eugenics into two types—positive and negative—both aimed at improving the human race through selective breeding.|access-date=16 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=26 September 2010|title=Eugenics|url=http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/glossary=eugenics|work=Unified Medical Language System (Psychological Index Terms)|publisher=National Library of Medicine}}</ref><ref name="Galton1904">{{cite journal|author=Galton, Francis|author-link=Francis Galton|date=July 1904|title=Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and Aims|url=http://www.mugu.com/galton/essays/1900-1911/galton-1904-am-journ-soc-eugenics-scope-aims.htm|journal=The American Journal of Sociology|volume=X|issue=1|pages=82, 1st paragraph|bibcode=1904Natur..70...82.|doi=10.1038/070082a0|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071103082723/http://galton.org/essays/1900-1911/galton-1904-am-journ-soc-eugenics-scope-aims.htm|archive-date=3 November 2007|access-date=27 December 2010|quote=Eugenics is the science which deals with all influences that improve the inborn qualities of a race; also with those that develop them to the utmost advantage.|doi-access=free}}</ref> played a significant role in the history and culture of the [[United States]] during the [[Progressive Era]], from the late 19th century until US involvement in [[World War II]].<ref name="SusanCurrell">{{cite book|author1=Susan Currell|author2=[[Christina Cogdell]]|title=Popular Eugenics: National Efficiency and American Mass Culture in the 1930s|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WRL6MbBO024C&pg=PA86|year=2006|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=978-0-8214-1691-4|pages=2–3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~tleonard/papers/retrospectives.pdf|title=Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era|language=en}}</ref>

The [[Eugenics in the United States|American eugenics movement]] was rooted in the [[Biological determinism|biological determinist]] ideas of the British Scientist [[Sir Francis Galton]]. In 1883, Galton first used the word eugenics to describe the biological improvement of human genes and the concept of being "well-born".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/eugenics/2-origins/|title=Origins of Eugenics: From Sir Francis Galton to Virginia's Racial Integrity Act of 1924|website=University of Virginia: Historical Collections at the Claude Moore Health Sciences Library|access-date=25 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Norrgard|first=K.|date=2008|title=Human testing, the eugenics movement, and IRBs|journal=Nature Education|volume=1|pages=170}}</ref> He believed that differences in a person's ability were acquired primarily through genetics and that eugenics could be implemented through [[selective breeding]] in order for the human race to improve in its overall quality, therefore allowing for humans to direct their own evolution.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://galton.org/books/hereditary-genius/text/pdf/galton-1869-genius-v3.pdf|title=Hereditary Genius|last=Galton|first=Francis|date=1869|page=64|access-date=1 October 2019}}</ref>

[[Henry H. Goddard]] was a eugenicist. In 1908, he published his own version, ''The Binet and Simon Test of Intellectual Capacity'', and cordially promoted the test. He quickly extended the use of the scale to the public schools (1913), to immigration ([[Ellis Island]], 1914) and to a court of law (1914).<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/2009/01/assessment.aspx|title=The birth of American intelligence testing|access-date=11 November 2017}}</ref>

Unlike Galton, who promoted eugenics through selective breeding for positive traits, Goddard went with the US eugenics movement to eliminate "undesirable" traits.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/forums/genetics-generation/america-s-hidden-history-the-eugenics-movement-123919444|title=America's Hidden History: The Eugenics Movement {{!}} Learn Science at Scitable|website=www.nature.com|language=en|access-date=11 November 2017}}</ref> Goddard used the term "[[feeble-minded]]" to refer to people who did not perform well on the test. He argued that "feeble-mindedness" was caused by heredity, and thus feeble-minded people should be prevented from giving birth, either by institutional isolation or sterilization surgeries.<ref name=":3" /> At first, sterilization targeted the disabled, but was later extended to poor people. Goddard's intelligence test was endorsed by the eugenicists to push for laws for forced sterilization. Different states adopted the sterilization laws at different paces. These laws, whose constitutionality was upheld by the Supreme Court in their 1927 ruling [[Buck v. Bell]], forced over 60,000 people to go through sterilization in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/html/eugenics/essay8text.html|title=Social Origins of Eugenics|website=www.eugenicsarchive.org|access-date=11 November 2017}}</ref>

California's sterilization program was so effective that the Nazis turned to the government for advice on how to prevent the birth of the "unfit".<ref name="HARNE">{{Cite web|url=http://hnn.us/article/1796 |title=The Horrifying American Roots of Nazi Eugenics |website=hnn.us |date=September 2003 |access-date=11 November 2017}}</ref> While the US eugenics movement lost much of its momentum in the 1940s in view of the horrors of Nazi Germany, advocates of eugenics (including Nazi geneticist [[Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer]]) continued to work and promote their ideas in the United States.<ref name="HARNE" /> In later decades, some eugenic principles have made a resurgence as a voluntary means of selective reproduction, with some calling them "[[new eugenics]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vizcarrondo |first1=Felipe E. |title=Human Enhancement: The New Eugenics |journal=The Linacre Quarterly |date=August 2014 |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=239–243 |doi=10.1179/2050854914Y.0000000021 |pmid=25249705 |pmc=4135459}}</ref> As it becomes possible to test for and correlate genes with IQ (and its proxies),<ref>{{cite web |last1=Regalado |first1=Antonio |title=Eugenics 2.0: We're at the Dawn of Choosing Embryos by Health, Height, and More |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/609204/eugenics-20-were-at-the-dawn-of-choosing-embryos-by-health-height-and-more/ |website=Technology Review |access-date=20 November 2019}}</ref> ethicists and embryonic [[genetic testing]] companies are attempting to understand the ways in which the technology can be ethically deployed.<ref>{{cite web |last1=LeMieux |first1=Julianna |title=Polygenic Risk Scores and Genomic Prediction: Q&A with Stephen Hsu |url=https://www.genengnews.com/insights/polygenic-risk-scores-and-genomic-prediction-qa-with-stephen-hsu/ |website=Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News |access-date=20 November 2019 |date=1 April 2019}}</ref>

===Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory===
{{main|Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory}}
[[File:Raymond Cattell.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Psychologist [[Raymond Cattell]] defined [[fluid and crystallized intelligence]] and authored the [[Cattell Culture Fair III]] IQ test.]]
[[Raymond Cattell]] (1941) proposed two types of cognitive abilities in a revision of Spearman's concept of general intelligence. [[Fluid intelligence]] (Gf) was hypothesized as the ability to solve novel problems by using reasoning, and [[crystallized intelligence]] (Gc) was hypothesized as a knowledge-based ability that was very dependent on education and experience. In addition, fluid intelligence was hypothesized to decline with age, while crystallized intelligence was largely resistant to the effects of aging. The theory was almost forgotten, but was revived by his student [[John L. Horn]] (1966) who later argued Gf and Gc were only two among several factors, and who eventually identified nine or ten broad abilities. The theory continued to be called Gf-Gc theory.<ref name=Kaufman2009/>

[[John Bissell Carroll|John B. Carroll]] (1993), after a comprehensive reanalysis of earlier data, proposed the [[three stratum theory]], which is a hierarchical model with three levels. The bottom stratum consists of narrow abilities that are highly specialized (e.g., induction, spelling ability). The second stratum consists of broad abilities. Carroll identified eight second-stratum abilities. Carroll accepted Spearman's concept of general intelligence, for the most part, as a representation of the uppermost, third stratum.<ref name=Lubinski2004>{{cite journal |last1=Lubinski |first1=David |title=Introduction to the Special Section on Cognitive Abilities: 100 Years After Spearman's (1904) "'General Intelligence,' Objectively Determined and Measured" |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |date=2004 |volume=86 |issue=1 |pages=96–111 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.96 |pmid=14717630 |s2cid=6024297}}</ref>{{sfn|Carroll|1993|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}

In 1999, a merging of the Gf-Gc theory of Cattell and Horn with Carroll's Three-Stratum theory has led to the Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory (CHC Theory), with ''g'' as the top of the hierarchy, ten broad abilities below, and further subdivided into seventy narrow abilities on the third stratum. CHC Theory has greatly influenced many of the current broad IQ tests.<ref name=Kaufman2009/>

Modern tests do not necessarily measure all of these broad abilities. For example, ''quantitative knowledge'' and ''reading and writing ability'' may be seen as measures of school achievement and not IQ.<ref name=Kaufman2009/> ''Decision speed'' may be difficult to measure without special equipment. ''g'' was earlier often subdivided into only Gf and Gc, which were thought to correspond to the nonverbal or performance subtests and verbal subtests in earlier versions of the popular Wechsler IQ test. More recent research has shown the situation to be more complex.<ref name="Kaufman2009" /> Modern comprehensive IQ tests do not stop at reporting a single IQ score. Although they still give an overall score, they now also give scores for many of these more restricted abilities, identifying particular strengths and weaknesses of an individual.<ref name="Kaufman2009" />

===Other theories===
An alternative to standard IQ tests, meant to test the [[zone of proximal development|proximal development]] of children, originated in the writings of psychologist [[Lev Vygotsky]] (1896–1934) during his last two years of his life.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mindes|first1=Gayle|title=Assessing Young Children |date=2003 |publisher= Merrill/Prentice Hall |isbn=9780130929082 |page=158 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x41LAAAAYAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Haywood|first1=H. Carl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xQekS_oqGzoC|title=Dynamic Assessment in Practice: Clinical and Educational Applications |last2=Lidz |first2=Carol S.|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139462075 |page=1}}</ref> According to Vygotsky, the maximum level of complexity and difficulty of problems that a child is capable to solve under some guidance indicates their level of potential development. The difference between this level of potential and the lower level of unassisted performance indicates the child's zone of proximal development.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/works/1934/problem-age.htm |last=Vygotsky |first=L.S. |year=1934 |chapter=The Problem of Age |title=The Collected Works of L. S. Vygotsky, Volume 5 |publication-date=1998 |pages=187–205}}</ref> Combination of the two indexes{{--}}the level of actual and the zone of the proximal development{{--}}according to Vygotsky, provides a significantly more informative indicator of psychological development than the assessment of the level of actual development alone.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chaiklin |first=S. |year=2003 |chapter=The Zone of Proximal Development in Vygotsky's analysis of learning and instruction |editor-last1=Kozulin |editor-first1=A. |editor-last2=Gindis |editor-first2=B. |editor-last3=Ageyev |editor-first3=V. |editor-last4=Miller |editor-first4=S. |title=Vygotsky's educational theory and practice in cultural context |pages=39–64 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Zaretskii |first=V.K. |title=The Zone of Proximal Development What Vygotsky Did Not Have Time to Write |journal=[[Journal of Russian and East European Psychology]] |volume=47 |issue=6 |date=November–December 2009 |pages=70–93|doi=10.2753/RPO1061-0405470604 |s2cid=146894219 }}</ref> His ideas on the zone of development were later developed in a number of psychological and educational theories and practices, most notably under the banner of [[dynamic assessment]], which seeks to measure developmental potential<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sternberg|first1=R.S. |last2=Grigorenko|first2=E.L.|year=2001|title=All testing is dynamic testing|journal=Issues in Education |volume=7 |issue=2|pages=137–170}}</ref><ref>Sternberg, R.J. & Grigorenko, E.L. (2002). Dynamic testing: The nature and measurement of learning potential. Cambridge: University of Cambridge</ref>{{sfn|Haywood|Lidz |2006|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}} (for instance, in the work of [[Reuven Feuerstein]] and his associates,<ref>Feuerstein, R., Feuerstein, S., Falik, L & Rand, Y. (1979; 2002). Dynamic assessments of cognitive modifiability. ICELP Press, Jerusalem: Israel</ref> who has [[Reuven Feuerstein#Difference between IQ test and Dynamic Assessment|criticized standard IQ testing]] for its putative assumption or acceptance of "fixed and immutable" characteristics of intelligence or cognitive functioning). Dynamic assessment has been further elaborated in the work of [[Ann Brown]], and [[John D. Bransford]] and in theories of [[multiple intelligences]] authored by [[Howard Gardner]] and [[Robert Sternberg]].<ref>{{cite book |contributor=Dodge, Kenneth A. |contribution=Foreword |pages=xiii–xv |last1=Haywood |first1=H. Carl |last2=Lidz |first2=Carol S. |title=Dynamic Assessment in Practice: Clinical And Educational Applications |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kozulin |first=A. |year=2014 |chapter=Dynamic assessment in search of its identity |editor-last1=Yasnitsky |editor-first1=A. |editor-last2=van der Veer |editor-first2=R. |editor-last3=Ferrari |editor-first3=M. |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Cultural-Historical Psychology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=126–147}}</ref>

[[J.P. Guilford]]'s [[J.P. Guilford#Guilford's Structure of Intellect|Structure of Intellect]] (1967) model of intelligence used three dimensions, which, when combined, yielded a total of 120 types of intelligence. It was popular in the 1970s and early 1980s, but faded owing to both practical problems and [[theoretical]] criticisms.<ref name="Kaufman2009" />

[[Alexander Luria]]'s earlier work on neuropsychological processes led to the PASS theory (1997). It argued that only looking at one general factor was inadequate for researchers and clinicians who worked with learning disabilities, attention disorders, intellectual disability, and interventions for such disabilities. The PASS model covers four kinds of processes (planning process, attention/arousal process, simultaneous processing, and successive processing). The planning processes involve decision making, problem solving, and performing activities and require goal setting and self-monitoring.

The attention/arousal process involves selectively attending to a particular stimulus, ignoring distractions, and maintaining vigilance. Simultaneous processing involves the integration of stimuli into a group and requires the observation of relationships. Successive processing involves the integration of stimuli into serial order. The planning and attention/arousal components comes from structures located in the frontal lobe, and the simultaneous and successive processes come from structures located in the posterior region of the cortex.<ref name=Das1975>{{Cite journal |author1=Das, J.P. |author2=Kirby, J. |author3=Jarman, R.F. |year=1975 |title=Simultaneous and successive synthesis: An alternative model for cognitive abilities |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=82 |pages=87–103 |doi=10.1037/h0076163}}</ref><ref name=Das2002>{{Cite journal |author=Das, J.P. |year=2000 |title=A better look at intelligence |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=11 |pages=28–33 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.00162|s2cid=146129242}}</ref><ref name= Naglieri1990>{{Cite journal |author1=Naglieri, J.A. |author2=Das, J.P. |year=2002 |title=Planning, attention, simultaneous, and successive cognitive processes as a model for assessment |journal=School Psychology Review |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=423–442|doi=10.1080/02796015.1990.12087349 }}</ref> It has influenced some recent IQ tests, and been seen as a complement to the Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory described above.<ref name=Kaufman2009/>