Editing Interior design (section)

==History and current terms==
[[Image:Vlkolínec, Slovakia 020.jpg|thumb|right|Typical interior of one of the houses in the Folk Architecture Reservation in [[Vlkolínec]] ([[Slovakia]])]]
In the past, interiors were put together instinctively as a part of the process of building.<ref name="autogenerated2003">Pile, J., 2003, Interior Design, 3rd edn, Pearson, New Jersey, USA</ref>

The profession of interior design has been a consequence of the development of society and the complex [[architecture]] that has resulted from the development of industrial processes.

The pursuit of effective use of space, user well-being and functional design has contributed to the development of the contemporary interior design profession. The profession of interior design is separate and distinct from the role of ''interior decorator'', a term commonly used in the US; the term is less common in the UK, where the profession of interior design is still unregulated and therefore, strictly speaking, not yet officially a profession.

In ancient India, architects would also function as interior designers. This can be seen from the references of [[Vishvakarma|Vishwakarma]] the architect—one of the gods in Indian mythology. In these architects' design of 17th-century Indian homes, sculptures depicting ancient texts and events are seen inside the palaces, while during the medieval times wall art paintings were a common feature of palace-like mansions in India commonly known as havelis. While most traditional homes have been demolished to make way to modern buildings, there are still around 2000 havelis<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/india-haveli-painted-mansions/index.html|title=Wonder walls: Inside India's exquisitely decorated haveli mansions|publisher=CNN|first=Divya |last=Dugar|date=2015-12-22|website=CNN Travel|language=en|access-date=2019-02-08}}</ref> in the [[Shekhawati|Shekhawati region of Rajashtan]] that [[Shekhawati painting|display wall art paintings]].

In ancient Egypt, "soul houses" (or models of houses) were placed in tombs as receptacles for food offerings. From these, it is possible to discern details about the interior design of different residences throughout the different Egyptian dynasties, such as changes in ventilation, porticoes, columns, loggias, windows, and doors.<ref>Blakemore, R.G. ''History of Interior Design Furniture: From Ancient Egypt to Nineteenth-Century Europe''. J. Wiley, 2006, p. 4.</ref>

[[File:Triclinium - Archäologische Staatssammlung München.JPG|thumb|Reconstructed Roman [[triclinium]] or dining room, with three ''[[klinai]]'' or couches]]
Painting interior walls has existed for at least 5,000 years, with examples found as far north as the [[Ness of Brodgar]],<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-08-05|title=Painted walls|url=https://www.nessofbrodgar.co.uk/painted-walls/|access-date=2021-03-10|website=The Ness of Brodgar Excavation|language=en-GB}}</ref> as have templated interiors, as seen in the associated [[Skara Brae]] settlement.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Ancient Buildings of Skara Brae|url=http://www.orkneyjar.com/history/skarabrae/skarab1.htm|access-date=2021-03-10|website=www.orkneyjar.com|archive-date=2023-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305215515/http://www.orkneyjar.com/history/skarabrae/skarab1.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was the Greeks, and later Romans who added co-ordinated, decorative [[mosaic]]s floors,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Resources: Mosaics in history {{!}} BAMM|url=https://bamm.org.uk/mosaics-in-history|access-date=2021-03-10|website=bamm.org.uk}}</ref> and templated [[Ancient Roman bathing|bath houses]], shops, civil offices, [[Castra|Castra (forts)]] and [[Roman temple|temple]], interiors, in the first millennia BC. With specialised guilds dedicated to producing interior decoration, and formulaic furniture, in buildings constructed to forms defined by Roman architects, such as [[Vitruvius]]: [[De architectura|De architectura, libri decem]] (The Ten Books on Architecture).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Roman domestic architecture (domus) (article)|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/x7e914f5b:beginner-guides-to-roman-architecture/a/roman-domestic-architecture-domus|access-date=2021-03-10|website=Khan Academy|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=1991|title=Space and Ritual in Domus, Villa, and Insula, 100 B.C.A.D. 250|url=https://cdn.inst-fs-iad-prod.inscloudgate.net/19e17be4-e375-4c38-b7c6-5c8c8637bf21/Clarke_Space%20and%20Ritual%20in%20Domus%20Villa%20Insula.pdf?token=eyJhbGciOiJIUzUxMiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCIsImtpZCI6ImNkbiJ9.eyJyZXNvdXJjZSI6Ii8xOWUxN2JlNC1lMzc1LTRjMzgtYjdjNi01YzhjODYzN2JmMjEvQ2xhcmtlX1NwYWNlJTIwYW5kJTIwUml0dWFsJTIwaW4lMjBEb211cyUyMFZpbGxhJTIwSW5zdWxhLnBkZiIsInRlbmFudCI6ImNhbnZhcyIsInVzZXJfaWQiOm51bGwsImlhdCI6MTYxNTM0MjM5MiwiZXhwIjoxNjE1NDI4NzkyfQ.WAYK0yD7D9KSZ5bLnUW29-DlUMDJ_U5MWdkvLMh-_0mH0l3bAtknSJ7iZvNl5_X3ZBbEtRnn0HHYFFx8my0zRg&download=1&content_type=application%2Fpdf|access-date=10 March 2021|website=Canvas.Brown.Edu}} {{Dead link|date=January 2022}}</ref>

Throughout the 17th and 18th century and into the early 19th century, interior decoration was the concern of the homemaker, or an employed [[upholsterer]] or craftsman who would advise on the artistic style for an interior space. Architects would also employ craftsmen or artisans to complete interior design for their buildings.

===Commercial interior design and management===
In the mid-to-late 19th century, interior design services expanded greatly, as the [[middle class]] in [[Industrial Revolution|industrial]] countries grew in size and prosperity and began to desire the domestic trappings of wealth to cement their new status. Large [[furniture]] firms began to branch out into general interior design and management, offering full house furnishings in a variety of styles. This business model flourished from the mid-century to 1914, when this role was increasingly usurped by independent, often [[amateur]], designers. This paved the way for the emergence of the professional interior design in the mid-20th century.<ref name="wiley">{{Cite journal|last=Edwards|first=Clive|date=4 February 2013|title=Complete House Furnishers: The Retailer as Interior Designer in Nineteenth-Century London|journal=Journal of Interior Design|volume=38|pages=1–17|doi=10.1111/joid.12000|s2cid=106815508 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/Complete_house_furnishers_the_retailer_as_interior_designer_in_nineteenth-century_London/9335348/1/files/16943399.pdf}}</ref>

[[File:Shoolbred catalogue.jpg|thumb|Illustrated catalog of the [[James Shoolbred|James Shoolbred Company]], published in 1876]]
In the 1950s and 1960s, upholsterers began to expand their business remits. They framed their business more broadly and in artistic terms and began to advertise their furnishings to the public. To meet the growing demand for contract interior work on projects such as [[office]]s, [[hotel]]s, and [[public building]]s, these businesses became much larger and more complex, employing builders, joiners, plasterers, textile designers, artists, and furniture designers, as well as engineers and technicians to fulfil the job. Firms began to publish and circulate [[Trade literature|catalogs]] with prints for different lavish styles to attract the attention of expanding middle classes.<ref name="wiley" />

As department stores increased in number and size, retail spaces within shops were furnished in different styles as examples for customers. One particularly effective advertising tool was to set up model rooms at national and international [[exhibition]]s in showrooms for the public to see. Some of the pioneering firms in this regard were [[Waring & Gillow]], [[James Shoolbred]], [[Mintons]], and Holland & Sons. These traditional high-quality furniture making firms began to play an important role as advisers to unsure middle class customers on taste and style, and began taking out contracts to design and furnish the interiors of many important buildings in Britain.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rca.ac.uk/Default.aspx?ContentID=156993&CategoryID=36646|title=Amanda Girling-Budd's Statement|access-date=2012-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829143857/http://rca.ac.uk/Default.aspx?ContentID=156993&CategoryID=36646|archive-date=2012-08-29|url-status=dead}}</ref>

This type of firm emerged in America after the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. The [[Herter Brothers]], founded by two German émigré brothers, began as an [[upholstery]] [[warehouse]] and became one of the first firms of furniture makers and [[interior decorator]]s. With their own design office and cabinet-making and upholstery workshops, Herter Brothers were prepared to accomplish every aspect of interior furnishing including decorative paneling and mantels, wall and ceiling decoration, patterned floors, and carpets and draperies.<ref>Howe, Katherine S. ''Herter Brothers: Furniture and Interiors for a Gilded Age.'' Harry N. Abrams: Metropolitan Museum of Art in association with the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, 1994. {{ISBN|0-8109-3426-4}}.1994</ref>

[[Image:Wallpaper group-p6m-1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Illustration from ''The Grammar of Ornament'' (1856), by interior designer [[Owen Jones (architect)|Owen Jones]]]]
A pivotal figure in popularizing theories of interior design to the middle class was the architect [[Owen Jones (architect)|Owen Jones]], one of the most influential design theorists of the nineteenth century.<ref>Clouse, Doug. "The Handy Book of Artistic Printing: Collection of Letterpress Examples with Specimens of Type, Ornament, Corner Fills, Borders, Twisters, Wrinklers, and other Freaks of Fancy". Princeton Architectural Press, 2009. p. 179.</ref> Jones' first project was his most important—in 1851, he was responsible for not only the decoration of [[Joseph Paxton]]'s gigantic [[The Crystal Palace|Crystal Palace]] for the [[Great Exhibition]] but also the arrangement of the exhibits within. He chose a controversial [[color theory|palette]] of red, yellow, and blue for the interior ironwork and, despite initial negative publicity in the newspapers, was eventually unveiled by [[Queen Victoria]] to much critical acclaim. His most significant publication was ''[[The Grammar of Ornament]]'' (1856),<ref>Clouse, Doug. "The Handy Book of Artistic Printing: Collection of Letterpress Examples with Specimens of Type, Ornament, Corner Fills, Borders, Twisters, Wrinklers, and other Freaks of Fancy". Princeton Architectural Press, 2009. p. 66</ref> in which Jones formulated 37 key principles of interior design and decoration.

Jones was employed by some of the leading interior design firms of the day; in the 1860s, he worked in collaboration with the London firm Jackson & Graham to produce furniture and other fittings for high-profile clients including art collector [[Alfred Morrison]] as well as [[Isma'il Pasha|Ismail Pasha]], [[Khedive]] of Egypt.

In 1882, the [[Kelly's Directory|London Directory]] of the [[Post Office]] listed 80 interior decorators. Some of the most distinguished companies of the period were [[John Dibblee Crace|Crace]], Waring & Gillowm and Holland & Sons; famous decorators employed by these firms included [[Thomas Edward Collcutt]], [[Edward William Godwin]], [[Charles Barry]], [[Gottfried Semper]], and [[George Edmund Street]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WcLc-1rLq5oC|title=Turning Houses Into Homes: A History of the Retailing and Consumption of Domestic Furnishings|author=Clive Edwards|year=2005|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd|access-date=2013-02-07|isbn=9780754609063}}</ref>

===Transition to professional interior design===
[[File:Design for a room by John Dibblee Crace.jpg|thumb|300px|This interior was designed by [[John Dibblee Crace]], President of the Institute of British Decorators, established in 1899.]]
By the turn of the 20th century, amateur advisors and publications were increasingly challenging the monopoly that the large retail companies had on interior design. English [[feminism|feminist]] author [[Mary Haweis]] wrote a series of widely read essays in the 1880s in which she derided the eagerness with which aspiring middle-class people furnished their houses according to the rigid models offered to them by the retailers.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LIARJjg8w_gC|title=Gender and Art|author=Gillian Perry|year=1999|publisher=Yale University Press|access-date=2013-02-07|isbn=978-0300077605}}</ref> She advocated the individual adoption of a particular style, tailor-made to the individual needs and preferences of the customer:<blockquote>One of my strongest convictions, and one of the first canons of good taste, is that our houses, like the fish's shell and the bird's nest, ought to represent our individual taste and habits.</blockquote>
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The move toward decoration as a separate artistic profession, unrelated to the manufacturers and retailers, received an impetus with the 1899 formation of the Institute of British Decorators; with [[John Dibblee Crace]] as its president, it represented almost 200 decorators around the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.facultyofdecoration.org/history.htm|title=History|access-date=2012-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908194942/http://facultyofdecoration.org/history.htm|archive-date=2013-09-08|url-status=dead}}</ref> By 1915, the London Directory listed 127 individuals trading as interior decorators, of which 10 were women. [[Rhoda Garrett]] and [[Agnes Garrett]] were the first women to train professionally as home decorators in 1874. The importance of their work on design was regarded at the time as on a par with that of [[William Morris]]. In 1876, their work – ''Suggestions for House Decoration in Painting, Woodwork and Furniture'' – spread their ideas on artistic interior design to a wide middle-class audience.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/templates/article.jsp?articleid=53628&back=|title=Garrett sisters|publisher=DNB}}</ref>

By 1900, the situation was described by ''The Illustrated Carpenter and Builder'':<ref>The Illustrated Carpenter and Builder, December 7 (1900): Suppl. 2</ref><blockquote>Until recently when a man wanted to furnish he would visit all the dealers and select piece by piece of furniture ....Today he sends for a dealer in art furnishings and fittings who surveys all the rooms in the house and he brings his artistic mind to bear on the subject.</blockquote>In America, [[Candace Wheeler]] was one of the first woman [[interior designers]] and helped encourage a new style of American design. She was instrumental in the development of art courses for women in a number of major American cities and was considered a national authority on home design. An important influence on the new profession was ''[[The Decoration of Houses]]'', a manual of interior design written by [[Edith Wharton]] with architect [[Ogden Codman]] in 1897 in America. In the book, the authors denounced Victorian-style [[interior decoration]] and interior design, especially those rooms that were decorated with heavy window curtains, [[Victorian decorative arts|Victorian bric-a-brac]], and overstuffed furniture. They argued that such rooms emphasized upholstery at the expense of proper space planning and architectural design and were, therefore, uncomfortable and rarely used. The book is considered a seminal work, and its success led to the emergence of professional decorators working in the manner advocated by its authors, most notably [[Elsie de Wolfe]].<ref>[http://www.npg.si.edu/exh/wharton/whar3.htm "Edith Wharton's World"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415125626/http://www.npg.si.edu/exh/wharton/whar3.htm |date=2012-04-15 }} National Portrait Gallery</ref>

[[Image:Elsiedewolfe.jpg|thumb|left|[[Elsie de Wolfe]], taken from ''The House in Good Taste'', 1913]]
[[Elsie De Wolfe]] was one of the first interior designers. Rejecting the Victorian style she grew up with, she chose a more vibrant scheme, along with more comfortable furniture in the home. Her designs were light, with fresh colors and delicate [[Chinoiserie]] furnishings, as opposed to the Victorian preference of heavy, red drapes and upholstery, dark wood and intensely patterned wallpapers. Her designs were also more practical;<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Flanner |first=J. |year=2009 |magazine=The New Yorker |title= Archive, Handsprings Across the Sea |access-date=August 10, 2011 |url=https://www.newyorker.com/archive/1938/01/15/1938_01_15_025_TNY_CARDS_000170753 }}</ref> she eliminated the clutter that occupied the Victorian home, enabling people to entertain more guests comfortably. In 1905, de Wolfe was commissioned for the interior design of the [[Colony Club]] on [[Madison Avenue]]; its interiors garnered her recognition almost over night.<ref>{{cite web|last=Munhall|first=Edward|title=Elsie de Wolf: The American pioneer who vanquished Victorian gloom|date=January 2000|url=http://www.architecturaldigest.com/architecture/archive/dewolfe_article_012000|publisher=Architectural Digest|access-date=27 October 2011|archive-date=15 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915102018/http://www.architecturaldigest.com/architecture/archive/dewolfe_article_012000|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Gray, Christopher (2003), "Streetscapes/Former Colony Club at 120 Madison Avenue; Stanford White Design, Elsie de Wolfe Interior," ''The New York Times'', 28 September 2003 [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE5D6143DF93BA1575AC0A9659C8B63&sec=&pagewanted=print] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230152137/https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/28/realestate/streetscapes-former-colony-club-120-madison-avenue-stanford-white-design-elsie.html?sec=&pagewanted=print|date=2022-12-30}}</ref> She compiled her ideas into her widely read 1913 book, ''The House in Good Taste''.<ref name="professionalization1">Lees-Maffei, G, 2008, Introduction: Professionalization as a focus in Interior Design History, Journal of Design History, Vol. 21, No. 1, Spring.</ref>

In England, [[Syrie Maugham]] became a legendary interior designer credited with designing the first all-white room. Starting her career in the early 1910s, her international reputation soon grew; she later expanded her business to [[New York City]] and [[Chicago]].<ref>Plunket, Robert. "Syrie's Turn: Once, everyone read W. Somerset Maugham. But now his late ex-wife is the one selling books", ''Sarasota Magazine'', 2006, v. 10.</ref> Born during the [[Victorian Era]], a time characterized by dark colors and small spaces, she instead designed rooms filled with light and furnished in multiple shades of white and mirrored screens. In addition to mirrored screens, her trademark pieces included: books covered in white vellum, cutlery with white porcelain handles, console tables with plaster palm-frond, shell, or dolphin bases, upholstered and fringed sleigh beds, fur carpets, dining chairs covered in white leather, and lamps of graduated glass balls, and wreaths.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k5wYRQAACAAJ|title=Syrie Maugham: Staging the Glamorous Interiors|author=Pauline C. Metcalf|year=2010|publisher=Acanthus PressLlc|access-date=2013-02-07|isbn=9780926494077}}</ref>

===Expansion===
The interior design profession became more established after [[World War II]]. From the 1950s onwards, spending on the home increased. Interior design courses were established, requiring the publication of textbooks and reference sources. Historical accounts of interior designers and firms distinct from the decorative arts specialists were made available. Organisations to regulate education, qualifications, standards and practices, etc. were established for the profession.<ref name="professionalization1"/>

Interior design was previously seen as playing a secondary role to architecture. It also has many connections to other design disciplines, involving the work of [[architects]], [[industrial designers]], [[engineers]], builders, craftsmen, etc. For these reasons, the government of interior design standards and qualifications was often incorporated into other professional organisations that involved design.<ref name="professionalization1"/> Organisations such as the [[Chartered Society of Designers]], established in the UK in 1986, and the American Designers Institute, founded in 1938,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-03|title=History of IDSA and its predecessors|url=https://www.idsa.org/history-idsa|access-date=2021-09-11|website=Industrial Designers Society of America – IDSA|language=en|archive-date=2021-09-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911144907/https://www.idsa.org/history-idsa|url-status=dead}}</ref> governed various areas of design.

It was not until later that specific representation for the interior design profession was developed. The US National Society of Interior Designers was established in 1957, while in the UK the Interior Decorators and Designers Association was established in 1966. Across Europe, other organisations such as The Finnish Association of Interior Architects (1949) were being established and in 1994 the International Interior Design Association was founded.<ref name="professionalization1"/>

Ellen Mazur Thomson, author of ''Origins of Graphic Design in America'' (1997), determined that professional status is achieved through education, self-imposed standards and professional gate-keeping organizations.<ref name="professionalization1"/> Having achieved this, interior design became an accepted profession.