Editing Islam in Russia (section)

==History==
{{Further|Arab–Khazar wars|Volga Bulgaria|Golden Horde}}[[File:Map of the Caucasus, 740 CE.svg|thumb|250x250px|Map of the Caucasus region {{Circa|740}}, [[Derbent]] of Russia was conquered by the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] ]]
In the mid-7th century AD, as part of the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]], Islam was introduced to the [[Caucasus]] region, parts of which [[Russo-Persian Wars|were later]] permanently incorporated by [[Russia]].<ref>{{cite book |quote="(..) It is difficult to establish exactly when Islam first appeared in Russia because the lands that Islam invaded early in its expansion were not part of Russia at the time, but were later incorporated into the expanding Russian Empire. In the middle of the seventh century, Islam reached the Caucasus region as part of the Arab [[Muslim conquest of Persia|conquest]] of the Iranian Sassanian Empire. "|title=Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security|first=Shireen |last= Hunter | publisher= M.E. Sharpe | date = 2004 |page=3 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> The first people to become Muslims within current Russian territory, the [[Dagestan]]i people (region of [[Derbent]]), converted after the [[Arab people|Arab]] conquest of the region in the 8th century. The first Muslim state in the future Russian lands was [[Volga Bulgaria]]<ref>
{{cite journal
| last1                 = Mako
| first1                = Gerald
| title                 = The Islamization of the Volga Bulghars: A Question Reconsidered
| url                   = https://www.academia.edu/1902427
| journal               = Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi
| date      = 2011
| volume                = 18
| issue                 = 208
| access-date           = 2015-10-07
| quote                 = [...] the Volga Bulghars adopted the Hanafi school of Sunni Islam, as practiced in Khwarazm.
}}
</ref> In 922, The [[Tatars]] of the [[Khanate of Kazan]] inherited the population of believers from that state. Later most of the European and Caucasian [[Turkic peoples]] also became followers of [[Islam]].<ref name="Shireen Tahmasseb Hunter 2004">Shireen Tahmasseb Hunter, Jeffrey L. Thomas, Alexander Melikishvili, ''"Islam in Russia"'', M.E. Sharpe, Apr 1, 2004,  {{ISBN|0-7656-1282-8}}</ref> The Mongol rulers of the [[Golden Horde]] were Muslims from 1313. By the 1330s, three of the four major khanates of the [[Mongol Empire]] had become Muslim.

The Tatars of the [[Crimean Khanate]], the last remaining successor to the [[Golden Horde]], continued to raid [[Southern Russia]] and [[Fire of Moscow (1571)|burnt down parts of Moscow]] in 1571.<ref>{{cite book|author= Solovyov, S.|title= History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher= AST|year= 2001|volume= 6|pages= 751–809|isbn=5-17-002142-9}}</ref> Until the late 18th century, the [[Crimean Tatars]] maintained a massive slave-trade with the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Ukraine over the period 1500–1700.<ref>Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by {{cite journal |author=Mikhail Kizilov |title=Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards: The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captives in the Crimean Khanate |url= https://www.academia.edu/3706285 |journal= The Journal of Jewish Studies|year= 2007|volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=189–210 |doi=10.18647/2730/JJS-2007 }}</ref>

From the early 16th century up to and including the 19th century, all of [[Transcaucasia]] and southern [[Dagestan]] was ruled by various successive [[History of Iran|Iranian empires]] (the [[Safavids]], [[Afsharids]], and the [[Qajar dynasty|Qajars]]), and their geopolitical and ideological neighboring arch-rivals, on the other hand, the [[Ottoman Turks]]. In the respective areas they ruled, in both the [[North Caucasus]] and [[South Caucasus]], [[Shia Islam]] and [[Sunni Islam]] spread, resulting in a fast and steady conversion of many more ethnic Caucasian peoples in adjacent territories.

The period from the [[Siege of Kazan|Russian conquest of Kazan]] in 1552 by [[Ivan the Terrible]] to the ascension of [[Catherine the Great]] in 1762 featured systematic Russian repression of Muslims through policies of exclusion and discrimination - as well as the destruction of [[Islamic culture|Muslim culture]] by the elimination of outward manifestations of Islam such as [[mosque]]s.<ref>Frank, Allen J. Muslim Religious Institutions in Imperial Russia: The Islamic World of Novouzensk District and the Kazakh Inner Horde, 1780–1910. Vol. 35. Brill, 2001.</ref> The Russians initially demonstrated a willingness in allowing [[Islam]] to flourish as [[Muslim cleric]]s were invited into the various regions to preach to the Muslims, particularly the [[Kazakhs]], whom the Russians viewed with contempt.<ref>Khodarkovsky, Michael. ''Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500-1800'', pg. 39.</ref><ref name=EncycSex572>Ember, Carol R. and Melvin Ember. ''Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women in the World's Cultures'', pg. 572</ref> However, Russian policy shifted toward weakening Islam by introducing pre-Islamic elements of collective consciousness.<ref name=Hunter14>Hunter, Shireen. "Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security", pg. 14</ref> Such attempts included methods of eulogizing pre-Islamic historical figures and imposing a sense of inferiority by sending Kazakhs to highly élite [[Russia]]n military institutions.<ref name=Hunter14 /> In response, Kazakh religious leaders attempted to bring religious fervor by espousing [[pan-Turkism]], though many{{quantify|date=October 2015}} were persecuted as a result.<ref>Farah, Caesar E. ''Islam: Beliefs and Observances'', pg. 304</ref> The government of Russia paid [[Ulama|Islamic scholars]] from the Ural-Volga area working among the Kazakhs<ref name="Frank1998">{{cite book|author=Allen J. Frank|title=Islamic Historiography and "Bulghar" Identity Among the Tatars and Bashkirs of Russia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nx2FwBKJ3MYC&pg=PA35|year=1998|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-11021-6|pages=35–}}</ref>

[[File:Carlo Bossoli Khanpalast von Bachcisaraj 1857.jpg|thumb|The Crimean Khan's Palace in [[Bakhchysarai]] in 1857. Crimea was conquered by the Russian Empire in 1783.]]

[[Islamic views on slavery|Islamic slavery]] did not have racial restrictions. Russian girls were legally allowed to be sold in Russian-controlled Novgorod to Tatars from Kazan in the 1600s by [[Law of Russia|Russian law]]. Germans, Poles, and Lithuanians were allowed to be sold to Crimean Tatars in Moscow. In 1665, Tatars were allowed to buy Polish and Lithuanian slaves from the Russians. Before 1649, Russians could be sold to Muslims under Russian law in Moscow. This contrasted with other places in Europe outside Russia where Muslims were not allowed to own Christians.<ref>{{cite journal |last=KIZILOV  |first= MIKHAIL |date=2007 |title= Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of_Christian Muslim and Jewish Sources |url=https://www.academia.edu/2971600 |journal=Journal of Early Modern History |publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV |location=Leiden|volume=11 |issue= 1–2 |page=16 |doi= 10.1163/157006507780385125 }}</ref>

The [[Cossack Hetmanate]] recruited and incorporated Muslim [[Mishar Tatars]].<ref name="Frank2001">{{cite book|author=Allen J. Frank|title=Muslim Religious Institutions in Imperial Russia: The Islamic World of Novouzensk District and the Kazakh Inner Horde, 1780-1910|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=udUR_uKyE1kC&pg=PA61|date=1 January 2001|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-11975-2|pages=61–}}</ref> Cossack rank was awarded to Bashkirs.<ref name="Frank2001 2">{{cite book|author=Allen J. Frank|title=Muslim Religious Institutions in Imperial Russia: The Islamic World of Novouzensk District and the Kazakh Inner Horde, 1780-1910|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=udUR_uKyE1kC&pg=PA79|date=1 January 2001|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-11975-2|pages=79–}}</ref> Muslim [[Turkic peoples|Turkics]] and Buddhist [[Kalmyks]] served as Cossacks. The [[Ural Cossacks|Cossack Ural]], [[Terek Cossacks|Terek]], [[Astrakhan Cossacks|Astrakhan]], and [[Don Cossacks|Don Cossack]] hosts had Kalmyks in their ranks. Mishar Muslims, Teptiar Muslims, service Tatar Muslims, and Bashkir Muslims joined the [[Orenburg Cossacks|Orenburg Cossack Host]].<ref name="Frank2001 3">{{cite book|author=Allen J. Frank|title=Muslim Religious Institutions in Imperial Russia: The Islamic World of Novouzensk District and the Kazakh Inner Horde, 1780-1910|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=udUR_uKyE1kC&pg=PA86|date=1 January 2001|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-11975-2|pages=86–}}</ref> Cossack non-Muslims shared the same status with [[Siberian Cossacks|Siberian Cossack]] Muslims.<ref name="Frank2001 4">{{cite book|author=Allen J. Frank|title=Muslim Religious Institutions in Imperial Russia: The Islamic World of Novouzensk District and the Kazakh Inner Horde, 1780-1910|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=udUR_uKyE1kC&pg=PA87|date=1 January 2001|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-11975-2|pages=87–}}</ref> Muslim Cossacks in Siberia requested an Imam.<ref name="Frank2001 5">{{cite book|author=Allen J. Frank|title=Muslim Religious Institutions in Imperial Russia: The Islamic World of Novouzensk District and the Kazakh Inner Horde, 1780-1910|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=udUR_uKyE1kC&pg=PA122|date=1 January 2001|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-11975-2|pages=122–}}</ref> Cossacks in Siberia included Tatar Muslims like in Bashkiria.<ref name="Frank2001 6">{{cite book|author=Allen J. Frank|title=Muslim Religious Institutions in Imperial Russia: The Islamic World of Novouzensk District and the Kazakh Inner Horde, 1780-1910|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=udUR_uKyE1kC&pg=PA170|date=1 January 2001|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-11975-2|pages=170–}}</ref>

[[File:Башкиры в Париже.jpg|thumb|Bashkirs in Paris during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], 1814]]

[[Bashkirs]] and [[Kalmyks]] in the [[Imperial Russian Army]] fought against [[Napoleon]]'s [[Grande Armée]] during the [[French invasion of Russia]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Vershinin |first=Alexander |date=29 July 2014 |title=How Russia's steppe warriors took on Napoleon's armies |url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/2014/07/29/how_russias_steppe_warriors_took_on_napoleons_armies_37029 |newspaper=Russia & India Report }}</ref><ref name="Elting1997">{{cite book|author=John R. Elting|title=Swords Around a Throne: Napoleon's Grande Armée|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jtABAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA237|year=1997|publisher=Perseus Books Group|isbn=978-0-306-80757-2|pages=237–}}</ref> They were judged suitable for inundating opponents but not intense fighting.<ref name="Leggiere2015">{{cite book|author=Michael V. Leggiere|title=Napoleon and the Struggle for Germany: Volume 2, The Defeat of Napoleon: The Franco-Prussian War of 1813|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CAe7BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101|date=16 April 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-39309-3|pages=101–}}{{cite book|author=Michael V. Leggiere|title=Napoleon and the Struggle for Germany: 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iKS4BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101|date=16 April 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-08054-6|pages=101–}}</ref> They were in a non-standard capacity in the military.<ref name="Hartley2008">{{cite book|author=Janet M. Hartley|title=Russia, 1762–1825: Military Power, the State, and the People|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pLAMsDm3wJEC&pg=PA27|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-275-97871-6|pages=27–}}</ref> Arrows, bows, and melee combat weapons were wielded by the Muslim Bashkirs. Bashkir women fought among the regiments.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://islam.ru/en/content/story/islam-russian-army |title= Islam in the Russian Army |last1= Nasirov  |first1=Ilshat |date=2005 |work= Islam Magazine |location= Makhachkala }}</ref> [[Denis Davidov]] mentioned the arrows and bows wielded by the Bashkirs.<ref name="Mikaberidze2015">{{cite book |author= Alexander Mikaberidze |title= Russian Eyewitness Accounts of the Campaign of 1807 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=uVhEBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA276|date= 20 February 2015 |publisher= Frontline Books |isbn=978-1-4738-5016-3 |pages= 276–}}</ref><ref name="Davydov1999">{{cite book |author= Denis Vasilʹevich Davydov |title= In the Service of the Tsar Against Napoleon: The Memoirs of Denis Davidov, 1806–1814 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vaOfAAAAMAAJ&q=On+that+day,+as+if+to+offer+us+a+distraction+from+dire+events,+several+Bashkir+regiments+arrived+to+join+our+rearguard.+...+it+is+just+possible+that+a+multitude+of+natives+from+the+Urals,+Kalmyks+and+Bashkirs,+sent+as+a+diversion+in+the+enemy%27s+rear,+... |year= 1999 |publisher= Greenhill Books |isbn=978-1-85367-373-3 |page= 51}}</ref> Napoleon's forces faced off against Kalmyks on horseback.<ref name="Kappeler2014">{{cite book|author=Andreas Kappeler|title=The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZ9eBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA129|date=27 August 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-56810-0|pages=129–}}</ref> Napoleon faced light mounted Bashkir forces.<ref name="MalloyPalermo2015">{{cite book|author1=Tove H. Malloy|author2=Francesco Palermo|title=Minority Accommodation through Territorial and Non-Territorial Autonomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jiqkCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT158|date=8 October 2015|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-106359-6}}</ref> Mounted Kalmyks and Bashkirs numbering 100 were available to Russian commandants during the war against Napoleon.<ref name="Lieven2010">{{cite book|author=Dominic Lieven|title=Russia Against Napoleon: The True Story of the Campaigns of War and Peace|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BAWbz1iPIfoC&pg=PT326|date=15 April 2010|publisher=Penguin Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-101-42938-9}}</ref> Kalmyks and Bashkirs served in the Russian army in France.<ref name="Lieven2010 2">{{cite book|author=Dominic Lieven|title=Russia Against Napoleon: The True Story of the Campaigns of War and Peace|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BAWbz1iPIfoC&pg=PT504|date=15 April 2010|publisher=Penguin Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-101-42938-9|pages=504–}}</ref> A nachalnik was present in every one of the 11 cantons of the Bashkir host which was created by Russia after the [[Pugachev's Rebellion|Pugachev Rebellion]].<ref name="Bowring2013">{{cite book|author=Bill Bowring|title=Law, Rights and Ideology in Russia: Landmarks in the Destiny of a Great Power|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M-uLyNbn09QC&pg=PA129|date=17 April 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-62580-2|pages=129–}}</ref> Bashkirs had the military statute of 1874 applied to them.<ref name="Steinwedel2016">{{cite book|author=Charles R. Steinwedel|title=Threads of Empire: Loyalty and Tsarist Authority in Bashkiria, 1552–1917|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D4D_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA145|date=9 May 2016|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-01933-2|pages=145–}}</ref> Muslims were exempt from [[Conscription in the Russian Empire|military conscription]] during [[World War I]].<ref>Figes, Orlando (1996). ''A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution, 1891-1924''. London: Jonathan Cape. p. 257. {{ISBN|0-224-04162-2}}. {{OCLC|35657827}}.</ref>

[[Image:Штурм аула Салта.jpg|thumb|right|Fighting in the mountains of [[Dagestan]] during the [[Murid War]]]]

While total expulsion (as practiced in other Christian nations such as [[Spain]], [[Portugal]] and [[Sicily]]) was not feasible to achieve a homogeneous [[Russian Orthodox|Russian-Orthodox]] population, other policies such as land grants and the promotion of migration by other Russian and non-Muslim populations into Muslim lands displaced many Muslims, making them minorities in places such as some parts of the [[Southern Ural|South Ural region]] and encouraging emigration to other parts such as the [[Ottoman Empire]] and neighboring [[Persia]], and almost annihilating the [[Circassians]], [[Crimean Tatars]], and various Muslims of the Caucasus. The Russian army rounded up people, driving Muslims from their villages to ports on the [[Black Sea]], where they awaited ships provided by the neighboring Ottoman Empire. The explicit Russian goal involved expelling the groups in question from their lands.<ref>Kazemzadeh 1974</ref> They were given a choice as to where to be resettled: in the Ottoman Empire, in Persia, or Russia far from their old lands. The [[Russo-Circassian War]] ended with the signing of loyalty oaths by Circassian leaders on 2 June [O.S. 21 May] 1864. Afterward, the Ottoman Empire offered to harbor the Circassians who did not wish to accept the rule of a Christian monarch, and many emigrated to Anatolia (the heart of the Ottoman Empire) and ended up in modern Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Iraq, and Kosovo. Many other Caucasian Muslims ended up in neighboring Iran - sizeable numbers of Shia [[Lezgins]], [[Azerbaijanis]], [[Iranian Georgians|Muslim Georgians]], [[Kabardians|Kabardins]], and [[Laks (Caucasus)|Laks]].<ref>А. Г. Булатова. Лакцы (XIX – нач. XX вв.). Историко-этнографические очерки. — Махачкала, 2000.</ref> Various Russian, Caucasus, and Western historians agree on the figure of {{circa}} 500,000 inhabitants of the highland Caucasus being deported by Russia in the 1860s. A large proportion of them died in transit from disease. Those that remained loyal to Russia were settled into the lowlands, on the left bank of the [[Kuban River|Kuban' River]]. The trend of [[Russification]] has continued at different paces in the rest of [[Russian Empire|Tsarist]] and [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet]] periods, so that {{citation needed|date=January 2014}} {{as of | 2014 | lc = on}} more Tatars lived outside the [[Republic of Tatarstan]] than inside it.<ref name="Shireen Tahmasseb Hunter 2004"/>

[[File:Muslim Girls School Erivan.jpg|thumb|Students and staff of the [[Erivan]] Russian-Muslim School for Girls, 1902]]

A policy of deliberately enforcing anti-modern, traditional, ancient conservative [[Education in Islam|Islamic education]] in schools and Islamic ideology was enforced by the Russians in order to deliberately hamper and destroy opposition to their rule by keeping them in a state of torpor to and prevent foreign ideologies from penetrating in.<ref name="Forbes1986">{{cite book|author=Andrew D. W. Forbes|title=Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911-1949|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA16|date=9 October 1986|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-25514-1|pages=16–}}</ref><ref name="BennigsenLemercier-Quelquejay1967">{{cite book|author1=Alexandre Bennigsen|author2=Chantal Lemercier-Quelquejay|author3=Central Asian Research Centre (London, England)|title=Islam in the Soviet Union|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YG9AAAAAIAAJ|year=1967|publisher=Praeger|page=15}}</ref>
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-295-1560-22, Nordfrankreich, Turkmenische Freiwillige.jpg|thumb|Captured Soviet soldiers of Muslim backgrounds [[Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy|volunteered in large numbers]] for the [[Ostlegionen]] of the Wehrmacht.]]
[[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist rule]] oppressed and suppressed Islam, like other [[religion in the Soviet Union|religions in the Soviet Union]].{{when|date=May 2013}} Many mosques (for some estimates,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://imamat-news.ru/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601194939/http://imamat-news.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1759&catid=46:mozaika&Itemid=479|url-status=dead|title=Imamat-news.ru смотреть порно видео онлайн|archivedate=June 1, 2013|website=imamat-news.ru}}</ref> more than 83% in Tatarstan) were closed. For example, the [[Märcani Mosque]] was the only acting mosque in [[Kazan]] at that{{when|date=May 2013}} time.[[File:Raising a flag over the Reichstag - Restoration.jpg|thumb|Abdulhakim Ismailov is seen raising the flag in the iconic "[[Raising a flag over the Reichstag]]" photo by [[Yevgeny Khaldei]]. ]]