Editing Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer (section)

== Biography ==

===Education===
Fallmerayer was born the seventh of ten children in Pairdorf ({{langx|it|Parara}}), a village in Tschötsch ({{langx|it|Scezze}}) near [[Brixen]] in [[county of Tyrol|Tyrol]]. At the time of Fallmerayer's birth, the region was incorporated in the [[Habsburg monarchy]], in 1805 it became a part of [[Bavaria]], and it belongs today to Italy. His parents were small farmers. From the age of seven Fallmerayer attended the local school in Tschötsch and worked as a shepherd.

In 1801 the family moved to Brixen, where Fallmerayer's father found employment as a day-laborer. Fallmerayer was enrolled in the ''Volksschule'', where he impressed the priests with his talents. In 1803 he entered the cathedral school as a ''[[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasiast]]'', whence he was graduated in 1809 with a diploma in metaphysics, mathematics, and the philosophy of religion. (The ''Gymnasium'' in Brixen today bears Fallmerayer's name).<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.schule.suedtirol.it/rg-bx/unsere%20Schule/stimmen_der_schueler.htm#Fallmerayer | title=Der deutschsprachige Bildungsbereich in Südtirol &#124; Bildung und Sprache &#124; Autonome Provinz Bozen - Südtirol }}</ref> He then left Tyrol, at the time in the midst of a [[Tyrolean Rebellion|freedom struggle]] against Bavaria, for [[Salzburg]].

In Salzburg, Fallmerayer found employment as a private tutor, and enrolled in a Benedictine seminary, where he studied classical, modern, and oriental philology, literature, history, and philosophy. After a year's study he sought to assure to himself the peace and quiet necessary for a student's life by entering the abbey of [[Kremsmünster Monastery|Kremsmünster]], but difficulties put in his way by the [[Bavaria]]n officials prevented the accomplishment of this intention.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=154}}

At the University of Landshut (today the [[Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich]]), to which he removed in 1812, he first applied himself to jurisprudence, but soon devoted his attention exclusively to history and classical and oriental philology.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=154}} His immediate necessities were provided for by a stipendium from the Bavarian crown.

===Early career===

In the fall of 1813, in the midst of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], Fallmerayer decided to seek his fame in military service and joined the Bavarian infantry as a [[subaltern (rank)|subaltern]]. He fought with distinction at [[Hanau]] on 30 October 1813 and served throughout the campaign in France. He remained in the army of occupation on the banks of the Rhine until the [[battle of Waterloo]], when he spent six months at [[Orléans]] as adjutant to General von Spreti. Two years of garrison life at [[Lindau]] on [[Lake Constance]] convinced him that his desire for military glory could not be fulfilled, and he devoted himself instead to the study of modern Greek, Persian and Turkish.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=154}}

Resigning his commission in 1818, he was engaged as a teacher of Latin and Greek in the gymnasium at [[Augsburg]],{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=154}} where his students included the young [[Napoleon III, Emperor of the French|Napoleon III]]. In Augsburg his liberal, anti-clerical, tendencies, which had already begun to develop during his student years, expressed themselves in opposition to the growing [[ultramontanism]] of the Bavarian state.

In 1821 Fallmerayer accepted another position at the Progymnasium in [[Landshut]], where he continued to teach classical languages, in addition to religion, German, history, and geography. Landshut was at the time still a great university city, and Fallmerayer took advantage of its resources to continue his study of history and languages.

In February 1823 Fallmerayer learned of a prize offered by the [[Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters]] to encourage research into the history of the [[Empire of Trebizond]]. This late medieval kingdom, located on the south coast of the [[Black Sea]], was at the time known only through scattered references in Byzantine and Turkish chronicles. Fallmerayer began to collect additional sources in a number of languages, including Arabic and Persian, from libraries across Europe, and corresponded with various scholars, including [[Silvestre de Sacy]] and [[Carl Benedict Hase]]. In December of the same year Fallmerayer submitted the resulting manuscript to the Danish Academy, and in 1824 he was awarded the prize. Fallmerayer's study, the ''Geschichte des Kaisertums von Trapezunt'', was however not published until 1827.

Fallmerayer attempted to convert his success into professional advancement in the Bavarian educational system. In the fall of 1824 he was named Professor at the Landshut Gymnasium, but in a series of letters to the kings of Bavaria, first to [[Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria|Maximilian I]] and then, following his death, to [[Ludwig I of Bavaria|Ludwig I]], Fallmerayer requested further funding for his research and a position as a professor at the University of Landshut. These requests were however denied, perhaps on account of Fallmerayer's liberal political views.

In 1826 the University of Landshut was moved to [[Munich]], the capital of the Bavarian state, while the Munich [[Lyceum]] was moved to Landshut. Fallmerayer was named Professor of History at the latter institution. In the academic year 1826–27, he offered a lecture course on [[Human history|universal history]]. His inaugural lecture was marked, once again, by his anti-clericalism and reformist-liberal political views. He returned to these themes in his final lecture, in which he presented a vision of a unified Europe under "the rule of public virtues and of laws."<ref>''Er präsantiert dort seine Vision eines liberalen, geeinten Europas, das sich durch "Gerechtigkeit in der Staatsverwaltung nach unterdrückender Willkür, und die Herrschaft der öffentlichen Tugenden und der Gesetze" auszeichne'': Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 45.</ref> These lectures, together with his distinctly "unpatriotic" lectures on Bavarian history, began to draw criticism from the more conservative elements of the academic establishment.

In 1827 the ''Geschichte des Kaisertums von Trapezunt'' was finally published, and met with universal praise from its reviewers, including [[Barthold Georg Niebuhr]] and Carl Hase. The reaction of the Bavarian establishment was somewhat cooler, in part due to the book's preface. Here Fallmerayer had stated as a "law of nature" that the attainment of earthly power by priests leads to the "deepest degradation of the human race."<ref>''Folglich sei die "tiefste Erniedrigung des menschlichen Geschlechtes jedes Mal der Höhepunkt geistlicher Allmacht":'' Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 49.</ref>

===The Greek theory===
Following the publication of his Trebizond study, Fallmerayer devoted his scholarly activities to another Greek region of the late Middle Ages, namely, the [[Morea]]. In particular, he developed his theory that the ancient, "Hellenic", population of the south Balkans had been replaced during the [[Migration Period]] by  [[Arvanites|Arvanitic]], [[Aromanians|Aromanian]], [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] and [[Turkic peoples]], a theory which he advocated with characteristic zeal. The arguments he used were historical rather than genetic; at the time, cultural and racial aspects were conflated and Fallmerayer used the evidence of the former to support the latter.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Caraher |first1=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2KXRCJ3gq8C |title=Archaeology and History in Roman, Medieval and Post-medieval Greece: Studies on Method and Meaning in Honor of Timothy E. Gregory |last2=Hall |first2=Linda Jones |last3=Moore |first3=R. Scott |date=2008 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-0-7546-6442-0 |pages=19 |language=en}}</ref>

The first volume of Fallmerayer's ''Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea während des Mittelalters'' appeared in 1830, and he expressed his central theory in the foreword as follows:

<blockquote>
The race of the Hellenes has been wiped out in Europe. Physical beauty, intellectual brilliance, innate harmony and simplicity, art, competition, city, village, the splendour of column and temple — indeed, even the name has disappeared from the surface of the Greek continent.... Not the slightest drop of undiluted Hellenic blood flows in the veins of the Christian population of present-day Greece.<ref>''Das Geschlecht der Hellenen ist in Europa ausgerottet. Schönheit der Körper, Sonnenflug des Geistes, Ebenmaß und Einfalt der Sitte, Kunst, Rennbahn, Stadt, Dorf, Säulenpracht und Tempel, ja sogar der Name ist von der Oberfläche des griechischen Kontinents verschwunden.... auch nicht ein Tropfen echten und ungemischten Hellenenblutes in den Adern der christlichen Bevölkerung des heutigen Griechenlands fließet'': Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 55.</ref>
</blockquote>

This phenomenon was further interpreted by Fallmerayer as an indication of the potential of the "Slavic" nations to overwhelm the "Latin" and the "German", a line of thought which he would later develop in his political writings. He further argued that the [[Great Powers]] who had supported the [[Greek War of Independence]], which according to him was led by Arvanites and Aromanians, had been led by a "classical intoxication" to misjudge the character of the [[modern Greek state]].

The ''Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea'' set Fallmerayer at loggerheads with the European [[Philhellenism|Philhellenes]] in general, and with the Bavarian King [[Ludwig I of Bavaria|Ludwig I]] in particular, a convinced Philhellene who already in 1829 had begun to advance the candidacy of his son, [[Otto of Greece|Otto]], for the Greek throne (Otto became King of Greece in 1832). Ludwig's philhellenism was in fact grounded in the conviction that the Greek revolt against Ottoman rule represented the return of antique Hellenic virtue.<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 58.</ref> Ludwig's displeasure with Fallmerayer also costed him his post in [[Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities]].

==== Reception ====
The earliest scholarly reviews of Fallmerayer's work were overwhermingly negative. He was accused of philological errors by the Slovenian linguist [[Jernej Kopitar]], and of misreading the historical sources by the historians [[Johann Zinkeisen]] and [[Karl Hopf (historian)|Karl Hopf]].<ref name="Veloudis, Giorgos 1982" /> [[Charles Alan Fyffe]] wrote as early as 1892 that "More recent inquiries have discredited both Fallerayer and his authorities".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Fyffe |first=Charles Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FX0MAAAAYAAJ&dq=fallmerayer+discredited&pg=PA242 |title=A History of Modern Europe: From 1814 to 1848. 1892 |date=1892 |publisher=Cassell & Company |pages=242 |language=en}}</ref> Fallmerayer's ideas caused fierce reaction from various scholars of the newly established Greek state and triggered a search for continuity within [[Greek historiography]], in an attempt to prove the existence of links between modern Greeks and the ancient Greek civilization."<ref name="Veloudis, Giorgos 1982">Veloudis, Giorgos, 1982. Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer and the birth of the Greek historicism, Athens: Mnimon.</ref> These strong criticisms which he received from his fellow professors and historians irreparably scarred Fallmerayer's public image.<ref>Spiliopoulou, Ioanna. [https://www.eens.org/EENS_congresses/2014/spiliopoulou_ioanna.pdf Το ταξίδι του Ειρηναίου Θειρσίου στην Ελλάδα (1831-1832) μέσα από την αλληλογραφία του με τη γυναίκα του ως πηγή μαρτυρίας για τις ιδεολογικές διενέξεις αναφορικά με τις ρίζες του ελληνικού πολιτισμού]. In: Dimadis, Konstantinos. (2015). [https://comdeg.eu/lit_dk_kt/uf9brzfr/ Continuities, Discontinuities, Ruptures in the Greek World (1204-2014): Economy, Society, History, Literature] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026000900/https://comdeg.eu/lit_dk_kt/uf9brzfr/ |date=2023-10-26 }}: 5th European Congress of Modern Greek Studies of the European Society of Modern Greek Studies. p. 377-396</ref> Later scholarly reviews have also been unfavorable. [[Edward Kennard Rand]] wrote in 1926 that Fallmerayer's ideas were "long discredited".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rand |first=Edward Kennard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ldUQAAAAIAAJ&q=fallmerayer+discredited |title=Speculum |date=1926 |publisher=Mediaeval Academy of America. |pages=94 |language=en}}</ref>  Anthropologist Michael Herzfeld (2020) notes that "Whether judged by contemporary or present-day standards, Fallmerayer's scholarship is uneven at best and makes extensive use of special pleading and blank assertion".<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Herzfeld |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vh-4DwAAQBAJ |title=Ours Once More: Folklore, Ideology, and the Making of Modern Greece |date=2020 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-78920-722-4 |pages=76–78 |language=en}}</ref>

In 2017 a DNA research proposed that, despite their genetical variations, the Greeks of Peloponnese are genetically connected with Sicilians and Italians of Southern Italy and have almost no connection with modern [[North Slav]]ic DNA.<ref>[[Stamatoyannopoulos, George]]; Bose, Aritra; Teodosiadis, Athanasios; Tsetsos, Fotis; Plantinga, Anna; Psatha, Nikoletta; Zogas, Nikos; Yannaki, Evangelia et alii. (2017-03-08). [http://www.nature.com/articles/ejhg201718 «Genetics of the peloponnesean populations and the theory of extinction of the medieval peloponnesean Greeks». European Journal of Human Genetics. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2017.18. ISSN 1476-5438.]</ref> A 2023 archaeogenetic study stated that Greeks have an ancestry, coinciding with the spread of Slavic language. This Eastern European DNA-signal is mostly present in mainland Greece (30-40%) but drops significantly on the Aegean islands (4-20%).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Olalde |first1=Iñigo |last2=Carrión |first2=Pablo |last3=Mikić |first3=Ilija |last4=Rohland |first4=Nadin |last5=Mallick |first5=Swapan |last6=Lazaridis |first6=Iosif |last7=Mah |first7=Matthew |last8=Korać |first8=Miomir |last9=Golubović |first9=Snežana |last10=Petković |first10=Sofija |last11=Miladinović-Radmilović |first11=Nataša |last12=Vulović |first12=Dragana |last13=Alihodžić |first13=Timka |last14=Ash |first14=Abigail |last15=Baeta |first15=Miriam |display-authors=et al. |date=7 December 2023 |title=A genetic history of the Balkans from Roman frontier to Slavic migrations |journal=[[Cell (journal)|Cell]] |volume=186 |issue=25 |url=https://reich.hms.harvard.edu/sites/reich.hms.harvard.edu/files/inline-files/1-s2.0-S0092867423011352-main.pdf |at=p. 5480; {{Plain link|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10752003/figure/F4/ Figure 4B}}; {{Plain link|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10752003/#SD6 Data S2, Table 8}} |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2023.10.018 |pmc=10752003 |pmid=38065079 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Political impact ====
In the 1830s, [[philhellenism|philehellenes]] who had recently supported the creation of the [[Greece|modern Greek kingdom]] suspected political motivations in Fallmerayer's writings regarding Greeks; namely an Austrian desire for expansion southwards into the Balkans, and Austrian antagonism to Russian interests in the area reflected in his other writings. In this context, the calls by English and French intellectuals for a revival of "the glory that was Greece" were seen by Austrians in a very negative light, and any Austrian theory on the Greeks was looked on with suspicion  by the philhellenes in the West.<ref name="Gourgouris" />

Fallmerayer was first among his contemporaries to put forward a ruthless [[Realpolitik]] on the [[Eastern Question]] and the expansionist designs of Czarist Russia. He was a Slavophobe,<ref name="Gourgouris" /> who ardently supported the [[Ottoman Empire]]<ref name=":1" /> and "argued vehemently that only a strong Ottoman State could prevent Russian expansion into Western Europe."<ref name="Gourgouris" /><ref name="Veloudis, Giorgos 1982" /><ref>Danforth, Loring M., 1984. "The Ideological Context of the Search for Continuities in Greek Culture", Journal of Modern Greek Studies, (May 1984): 53-85.</ref> In 1855, during the [[Crimean War]], he submitted an article to his newspaper which the editors refused to publish. In this article he stated that the sole fact that the inhabitants of Attica "did not speak Greek but Albanian", was sufficient reason for the [[Great powers of Europe|Great Powers]] to choose the Turkish side in the Greek-Turkish conflict.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hokwerda |first1=Hero |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozgbAAAAYAAJ&q=polyphonia+byzantina:+studies+in+honour+of+willem+j.+aerts+archive |title=Polyphonia Byzantina: Studies in Honour of Willem J. Aerts |last2=Smits |first2=Edmé Renno |last3=Woesthuis |first3=Marinus M. |last4=Midden |first4=Lia van |date=1993 |publisher=Egbert Forsten |isbn=978-90-6980-054-7 |pages=331 |language=en}}</ref>

Fallmerayer's theory was used as Nazi propaganda in [[Axis-occupied Greece]] (1941–1944) during [[World War II]], when it was used as an excuse to commit numerous atrocities against the Greek population.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Coleman |editor-first=John E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1DRoAAAAMAAJ&q=%22theory+turned+the+present-day+inhabitants+of+Greece+into+the+barbarians%2C+a+notion+not+lost+on+the+classically+educated+Nazi+officers%2C+who+revived+Fallmereyer%27s+theory+to+excuse+their+atrocities+against%22 |title=Greeks and barbarians essays on the interactions between Greeks and non-Greeks in antiquity and the consequences for Eurocentrism |author-last=Walz |author-first=Clark A. |publisher=CDL Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-883053-44-4 |location=Bethesda, Md. |pages=286}}</ref>

===Travels===
[[File:Inscription from Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Inscription from Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer inside the Great Temple of [[Ramses II]], [[Abu Simbel]], [[Egypt]]]]

Upset by the critical reaction to his Morea study, Fallmerayer resolved to travel abroad to collect material for the projected second volume. An opportunity presented itself when the Russian Count [[Alexander Ivanovich Ostermann-Tolstoy]] arrived in Munich, seeking a learned companion for an eastward journey. Fallmerayer applied for and received a year-long leave from his teaching duties, and in August 1831 departed from Munich with Ostermann-Tolstoy.

The two sailed first from [[Trieste]] to [[Alexandria]], planning to arrive in [[Jerusalem]] by Christmas. Instead they remained in Egypt for nearly a year, leaving for Palestine in the summer of 1832.

Early in 1833 they sailed for [[Constantinople]] by way of [[Cyprus]] and [[Rhodes]]. In November 1833, Fallmerayer finally set foot in the Morea, where the party remained for a month before travelling north to [[Attica]]. There Fallmerayer claimed he was struck by the preponderance of [[Arvanitika]], an [[Albanian language|Albanian]] dialect. The party arrived in Italy in February 1834, and returned to Munich in August of the same year.

Upon his return, Fallmerayer discovered that the Landshut Lyceum had in the meantime been moved to [[Freising]], and that his position had been eliminated. Behind this early "retirement" lay Fallmerayer's "known convictions, which, particularly in religious matters, are incompatible with the teaching profession."<ref>Letter of Count Seinsheim to the Bavarian Ministry of the Interior, ''bekannte - besonders in religiöser Hinsicht für den Lehrberuf nicht geeignete Gesinnungen'': Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 70.</ref> He was instead offered an ''Ordinarius'' position as a member of the Bavarian Academy, where his first lecture concerned the "[[Albanisation]]" of the population of Attica. His lecture was answered with an attack on his theories by [[Friedrich Wilhelm Thiersch]], and the two opposing lectures led to a controversy in Munich academic circles, as well as in the popular press.

The controversy had a pointedly political dimension, with Thiersch representing the "Idealpolitik" position, according to which Bavaria should support the Greek state, and Fallmerayer advocating a hands-off "Realpolitik." This political polemic was further provoked by the preface to the second volume of Fallmerayer's ''Geschichte'', published in 1836, in which he wrote that the Greek War of Independence was a "purely Shqiptarian ([[Albania]]n), not a Hellenic Revolution."<ref>''rein schkypitarische, nicht eine hellenische Revolution'': Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 74.</ref> He advocated furthermore the replacement of the German monarchy in Greece by a native regime.

1839 marked the beginning of Fallmerayer's career as a correspondent for the ''[[Allgemeine Zeitung]]'', where he would continue to publish until his death. Fallmerayer's contributions to the ''AZ'' included travel essays, book reviews, political columns, and ''[[Feuilleton]]s''.

[[File:Fallmerayer sketch.jpg|thumb|300px|Fallmerayer's sketch (1841) of the founding document of the [[Dionysiou monastery]], [[Mount Athos]], with portraits of Emperor [[Alexios III of Trebizond]] and Empress Theodora.]]

Fallmerayer soon after left the country again on account of political troubles, and spent the greater part of the next four years in travel, spending the winter of 1839&ndash;1840 with Count Tolstoy at [[Geneva]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=154}} Between July 1840 and June 1842 Fallmerayer embarked on his second major journey, setting out from [[Regensburg]] and travelling along the [[Danube]] and across the [[Black Sea]] to [[Trabzon|Trapezunt]]. After long stays in Trapezunt, Constantinople, [[Mount Athos|Athos]]&ndash;[[Chalkidiki]] and the rest of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], and Athens, he returned to Munich via Trieste and Venice.

Fallmerayer published numerous reports from this journey in the ''AZ'', in which he offered a mix of political observations, restatements and further developments of the Greek theory, and "charming descriptions of Anatolian and Turkish landscapes [that] bear comparison with the best examples of 19th-century ''Reisebilder'' (travel images)."<ref>''Kindlers neues Literatur-Lexikon'', vol. 5, p. 388.</ref> During his year-long stay in Constantinople (from 10 October 1841 to 24 October 1842), Fallmerayer began to advocate European support of the [[Ottoman Empire]] as a bulwark against the growing influence of the [[Russian Empire]] in the Balkans.<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 113.</ref> These articles were collected and published in 1845 as the ''Fragmente aus dem Orient'', the work on which Fallmerayer's fame as a ''littérateur'' largely rests.

Fallmerayer's anti-Russian sentiments were not yet fully developed, and upon his return to Munich in 1842, he was befriended by the Russian poet and diplomat [[Fyodor Tyutchev]]. This latter had been entrusted by [[Karl Nesselrode]] and [[Alexander von Benckendorff]] to find a new spokesperson for Russian interests in Germany. Fallmerayer's Greek thesis had aroused interest in Russian circles, and it was perhaps for this reason that Tyutchev approached Fallmerayer and proposed that he should serve as a journalistic mouthpiece for Czarist policy. Fallmerayer declined, and it has indeed been suggested that his growing opposition to Russian expansionism was provoked by this encounter.<ref>R. Lauer, "Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer und die Slaven", in Thurnher, ed., ''Fallmerayer'', 133-34.</ref>

By 1845, when the ''Fragmente'' were published, Fallmerayer's distrust of the Tsars had led him to a view of world-historical development that was opposed to the idealistic accounts of [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] and of Fallmerayer's most vocal opponent, Thiersch. Instead of steady progress toward freedom, Fallmerayer perceived a fundamental polarity between "East" and "West":
<blockquote>
For nearly eighteen aeons [Äonen], all history has been the result of the struggle between two basic elements, split apart by a divine power from the very beginning: a flexible life-process on the one side, and a formless, undeveloped stasis on the other. The symbol of the former is eternal Rome, with the entire Occident lying behind her; the symbol of the latter is Constantinople, with the ossified Orient.... That the Slavs might be one of the two world-factors, or if one prefers, the shadow of the shining image of European humanity, and therefore that the constitution of the earth might not admit philosophical reconstruction without their assent, is the great scholarly heresy of our time.<ref>''Alle Geschichte ist seit bald achtzehn Äonen nur Resultat des Kampfes der beiden Grundelemente, in welche diese eine göttliche Urkraft von Anbeginn auseinanderging: beweglicher Lebensprozeß auf der einen Seite und formlos unausgegorenes Insichverharren auf der andern. Sinnbild des ersten ist die ewige Roma mit dem ganzen dahinterliegenden Okzident, Sinnbild des andern Konstantinopel mit dem erstarrten Morgenland.... Daß aber die Slaven der eine der beiden Weltfaktoren, oder wenn man lieber will, der Schatten des großen Lichtbildes der europäischen Menschheit seien und folglich die Konstitution des Erdbodens ohne ihr Zutun im philosophischen Sinne nicht rekonstruiert werden könne, ist die große wissenschaftliche Häresie unserer Zeit'': quoted in ''Kindlers neues Literatur-Lexkion'', vol. 5, p. 388.</ref>
</blockquote>

[[File:Fallmerayer diploma.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Certificate of honor, presented to  Fallmerayer by the Ottoman Sultan [[Abdülmecid I]] in 1848.]]

Thiersch once more replied to these polemics in an article, also published in the ''AZ'', arguing that the placement of western-European rulers on the thrones of the new Slavic states in the Balkans would be sufficient to prevent the rise of a "new Byzantine-Hellenic world empire."<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 114.</ref>

Fallmerayer's essays in the ''AZ'' drew the attention of the Bavarian Crown Prince [[Maximilian II of Bavaria|Maximilian]], whose political views were significantly more liberal than those of his father. Between 1844 and 1847 Fallmerayer served Maximilian as a mentor, and occasionally as a private tutor, on historical and political questions.<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 161-73.</ref> His analysis of Balkan politics, commissioned by Maximilian in 1844, is preserved.<ref>Titled ''Die gegenwärtigen Zustande der europäischen Turkei und des freien Königreiches Griechenland'' (The present conditions of European Turkey and of the free Greek Kingdom), it is published in Thurnher, ''Jahre der Vorbereitung'', 17-34.</ref>

In May 1847 Fallmerayer set out on his third and final eastern journey, leaving from Munich for Trieste, whence he sailed to Athens, where he had an audience with [[Otto of Greece|King Otto]]. By June he had arrived in [[Büyükdere, Istanbul|Büyükdere]], the summer residence of the Constantinople elite, where he remained for four months before travelling south to the Holy Land via [[Bursa]] and [[İzmir]]. In January 1848 he sailed from Beirut back to İzmir, where he stayed until his return to Munich. Fallmerayer's contributions to the ''AZ'' from this period emphasized the strength of Ottoman rule and reformist tendencies in the Turkish government, which he contrasted to the "desolate" condition of the [[Kingdom of Greece (Wittelsbach)|Kingdom of Greece]].<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 116.</ref>

===1848===

Already in 1847, Ludwig I of Bavaria had initiated a liberal-leaning reform of the Bavarian educational system, and on 23 February 1848, he appointed Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer Professor Ordinarius for History at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he was to replace the recently deceased [[Johann Joseph von Görres]].<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 132-35.</ref> Fallmerayer, still in İzmir, received the news in March and, completely surprised, returned immediately to Munich.<ref>Thurnher, "Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer in seiner und in unserer Zeit", in Thurner, ed., ''Fallmerayer'', 13; Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 135.</ref>

Fallmerayer never offered a single class at the University, however, for on 25 April, before the beginning of the summer semester, he was chosen as a Bavarian delegate to the [[Frankfurt Parliament]], a product of the [[Revolutions of 1848 in the German states|Revolutions of 1848]].<ref>On the complicated political circumstances surrounding Fallmerayer's selection, see Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 187-98.</ref> In May, Fallmerayer's former pupil Maximilian II, King of Bavaria since the abdication of his father in March, called on Fallmerayer to serve as his political advisor, in which role he served until the end of 1848.<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 173-86.</ref>

As the parliamentary debates turned in August toward the relationship between church and state, Fallmerayer assumed an uncompromising anti-clerical stance, and his reputation among the left delegates increased.<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 203-4.</ref> In October he supported a series of motions put forward by the far-left faction.<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 204-5.</ref> In January 1848 he again supported the far-left proposal according to which the new, united Germany was to be led by a democratically elected president.<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 206.</ref> In June, finally, he followed the radical ''Rumpfparlament'', which represented the last attempt to preserve the parliamentary structure that had been established in 1848, to [[Stuttgart]].<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 209-11. On the ''Rumpfparlament'' see the article in the [[:de:Rumpfparlament (Deutschland)|German Wikipedia]].</ref> The Bavarian regime had forbidden its delegates to participate in the Stuttgart Parliament, and following its forcible break-up on June 18 by [[History of Württemberg|Württembergian]] troops, Fallmerayer fled to Switzerland.<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 211-13.</ref> In September 1849 his appointment to the faculty of the University of Munich was revoked by Maximilian II.<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 140.</ref> In December 1849 the Bavarian members of the Stuttgart Parliament were offered amnesty, and in April 1850 Fallmerayer returned to Munich.<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 214-15.</ref>

===Late years===
Shortly after Fallmerayer's return to Munich, in November 1850, the Munich Professor [[Johann Nepomuk von Ringseis]] delivered an "explosive" lecture at a public session of the Bavarian Academy, where he denounced the arrival in Bavaria of a "philosophical Left", marked by liberalism and irreligiosity, that viewed all religion as a "pathological condition." Fallmerayer was present at the lecture and viewed it as an opportunity to reenter the public sphere. His reply was published in January in the Leipzig ''Blätter für literarische Unterhaltung'', a liberal journal that had been founded by [[Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus]]. There he not only responded to Ringseis' account, but furthermore expressed his general opinions on the function of academic institutions, and advocated the "Right to Free Research and Free Speech."<ref>''Recht der freien Forschung und freien Rede'':Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 147.</ref> He also made a number of unflattering remarks regarding Ringseis' personal appearance.<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 143-149.</ref>

[[File:Fallmerayers Grab.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Fallmerayer's tombstone, [[Alter Südfriedhof]], [[Munich]].]]

In reaction the ultramontanist party in Munich launched an organized offensive, in both the press and in official circles, to discredit Fallmerayer. An article published in the ''Tiroler Zeitung'' claimed that, as a result of unspecified transgressions committed in Athens, Fallmerayer had been punished by [[rhaphanidosis]].<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 155. The punishment, attested for ancient if not for modern Athens, involved the insertion of a radish into the offender's anus; see J. Davidson in the [[London Review of Books]], August 24, 2000 [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v22/n16/davi02_.html (available online)].</ref> On January 25, [[Peter Ernst von Lasaulx]] proposed the formation of a commission to consider Fallmerayer's expulsion from the Academy; despite a spirited defense of Fallmerayer by [[Leonhard von Spengel]], the motion was passed with a vote of 10 to 8. The commission was formed in March, and while it declined to expel Fallmerayer, resolved to compose an official rebuke, which was published in the ''AZ'' on March 12.<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'',150-54.</ref>

In his last decade Fallmerayer continued to publish a stream of political and cultural articles, in particular in the journals ''Donau'' and ''Deutsches Museum''. With the outbreak of the [[Crimean War]] in 1854, Fallmerayer's activity as correspondent for the ''AZ'' once more increased.<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', 93.</ref> In this conflict he naturally supported the European-Ottoman coalition against the Czar.<ref>Brief account in Lauer, "Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer und die Slaven", in Thurnher, ed., ''Fallmerayer'', 156-57.</ref> He also returned to more academic pursuits, devoting particular attention to a series of publications on the [[Albania in the Middle Ages|medieval history of Albania]].

Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer died in Munich on 26 April 1861 as a result of weakness of the heart.<ref>Leeb, ''Fallmerayer'', xxvi.</ref> The last entry in his diary, written the previous evening, reads ''Fahle Sonne'' (meaning "pale sun").<ref>E. Thurnher, "Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer", in Thurnher, ed., ''Fallmerayer'', 15.</ref>