Editing Jicarilla Apache (section)

==History==

===Early history===
The Jicarilla Apaches are one of the [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan linguistic]] groups that migrated out of [[Canada]] by 1525 CE, possibly several hundred or more years earlier.<ref>Carlisle, pp. 3, 45-46.</ref> They eventually settled on what they considered their land, bounded by four sacred rivers in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado–the [[Rio Grande]], [[Pecos River]], [[Arkansas River]], and [[Canadian River]]–and containing sacred mountain peaks and ranges. The Jicarilla also ranged out into the plains of northwestern [[Texas]] and the western portions of [[Oklahoma]] and [[Kansas]].<ref>Carlisle, pages 4-5.</ref><ref name=VelardeTiller28>Velarde Tiller, 28.</ref> By the 1600s, they inhabited the Chama Valley in present-day New Mexico and the western part of present-day Oklahoma. Before contact with the Spanish, the Apache people lived in relative peace.<ref name=Pritzker12>Pritzker, 12.</ref>

The Jicarilla people of the 1600s were seminomadic, engaging in seasonal [[agriculture]] they learned from the [[Puebloan peoples|Pueblo people]] and Spaniards of New Spain, along the rivers within their territory.<ref name=Pritzker14/><ref name="Greenwald97">Greenwald, 97.</ref>

The [[Apache people|Apache]] have historical connections to the [[Dismal River culture]] of the western Plains.<ref name=Cassells-236>Cassells, pp. 236.</ref> This culture is often associated with the Paloma and Quartelejo (also known as Cuartelejo) Apaches. Jicarilla Apache pottery has also been found at several Dismal River complex sites.<ref name=Gibbon213>Gibbon, p. 213.</ref> Over time, some of the people from the Dismal River culture joined the [[Plains Apache|Kiowa Apache]] in the [[Black Hills]] of present-day [[South Dakota]]. Due to pressure from the west by the Comanche and from the east by the [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] and [[French people|French]], the Kiowa and the remaining people of Dismal River culture migrated south, where they eventually joined the [[Lipan Apache people|Lipan Apache]] and Jicarilla Apache nations.<ref name=Gibbon213/>

By the 1800s, the Jicarilla were planting a variety of crops along the rivers, especially along the upper Arkansas River and its tributaries, sometimes using irrigation to aid in growing squash, beans, pumpkins, melons, peas, wheat, and corn. They found farming in the mountains safer than on the open plains. They primarily hunted buffalo into the 17th century, and, thereafter, hunted antelope, deer, mountain sheep, elk, and buffalo. Jicarilla women gathered berries, agave, honey, onions, potatoes, nuts, and seeds from the wild.<ref name=Pritzker14/><ref name="Greenwald97"/>

===Sacred land and creation story===
[[File:Apachean ca.18-century.png|250px|thumb|Apachean tribes ca. 18th century: WA – [[Western Apache]], N – [[Navajo people|Navajo]], Ch – [[Chiricahua]], M – [[Mescalero]], J – [[Jicarilla]], L – [[Lipan Apache people|Lipan]], Pl – [[Plains Apache]]]]

In the Jicarilla [[creation myth|creation story]], the land enclosed by the four [[sacred]] rivers was provided to them by the [[Creator deity|Creator]]. It included select places for communicating with the Creator and spirits, as well as sacred rivers and mountains to be respected and conserved. Additionally, there were very specific places for obtaining items for [[ceremony|ceremonial]] [[rituals]], such as the white [[clay]] found {{Convert|18|mi}} southeast of [[Taos, New Mexico|Taos]], red [[ochre]] {{Convert|20|mi}} north of Taos, and yellow ochre on a mountain near [[Picuris Pueblo]]. The Jicarilla people believe the "heart of the world" is located near Taos.<ref>Greenwald, 95-97.</ref><ref>Velarde Tiller, 26-28.</ref>

Traditional Jicarilla stories, such as White Shell Woman, Killer of the Enemies, Child of the Water, and others, feature people and places that are special to them. These places include the [[Rio Grande Gorge]], [[Picuris Pueblo]], the spring and marsh near [[El Prado, New Mexico|El Prado]], [[Hopewell, New Mexico|Hopewell Lake]], and particularly the [[Taos Pueblo]] and the four sacred rivers. Additionally, the Jicarilla created [[shrines]] in locations that held spiritual significance, some of which were shared with the Taos Pueblo in the Taos area.<ref>Eiselt, 57-59.</ref>

In 1865, Father [[Antonio José Martínez]], a priest from New Mexico, documented a connection between the Jicarilla people and Taos. He wrote that the Jicarilla had a long history of living between the mountains and the villages, with pottery making being an important source of income. The clay used for the pottery came from the Taos and Picuris Pueblo areas.<ref>Eiselt, 59-60.</ref>

===Pressures for Jicarilla Apache land===
The Apaches' traditional culture, economy, and lifestyle became strained by the arrival and growth of other populations, [[Manifest Destiny]], and the [[Indian Wars]].  Many people died due to [[famine]], the [[Indian Wars]], including the [[Battle of Cieneguilla]], and diseases not indigenous to the American [[continent]], to which they had no resistance.{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

When the [[Comanche]], who had obtained guns from the French, and their close allies and kin, the [[Ute tribe|Ute]], were expanding onto the plains, they pillaged the various eastern [[Apache]] peoples (Jicarilla, [[Mescalero]], and [[Lipan Apache people|Lipan]]) who occupied the southern plains in a bid for control. As they were pushed off the plains, the Jicarilla moved to the mountains and near the pueblos and Spanish [[Mission (Christianity)|missions]], where they sought alliance with the [[Puebloan peoples]] and the Spanish settlers.<ref name="Pritzker12" /> In 1724, several Apache bands were annihilated by the Comanches, who forced them to "give up half their women and children, and then they burned several villages, killing all but sixty-nine men, two women, and three boys." The Jicarilla people were forced to seek refuge into the eastern [[Sangre de Cristo Mountains]] north of the [[Taos Pueblo]] in New Mexico. Some moved to the [[Pecos National Historical Park|Pecos Pueblo]] in New Mexico or joined the [[Mescalero]] and [[Lipan Apache people|Lipan]] bands in Texas.<ref>Carlisle, pp. 190-1, 260.</ref> In 1779, a combined force of Jicarilla, Ute, Pueblo, and Spanish soldiers defeated the Comanche, who, after another seven years and several more military campaigns, finally sued for peace. After that, the Jicarilla reestablished themselves in their old tribal territory in southern Colorado.<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3458000108.html Jicarilla]</ref>

===Ollero and Llanero bands===
The geography of the Jicarilla tribal territory consists of two fundamental environments that helped shape the tribe's basic social organization into two bands: the ''Llaneros'', or plains people, and the ''Olleros'', or mountain valley people.<ref name=Griffin-Pierce380>Griffin-Pierce, 380.</ref><ref name=Goddard8>Goddard, 8.</ref><ref name=Hook_Pegler116>Hook, Pegler, 116.</ref>

Beginning in the 19th century, after being pushed out of the plains, the Jicarilla split into two bands:
* The ''Olleros'', the [[mountain people]] - [[pottery]] making clan, a.k.a. ''Northern Jicarilla'', lived west of the Rio Grande along the [[Rio Chama (Rio Grande)|Chama River]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://research.libraries.wsu.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/2376/549/B_Wazaney_072206.pdf |title=This Land is Your Land, This is Mine: The Socioeconomic Implications of Land Use Among the Jicarilla Apache and Arden Communities| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171125084200/https://research.libraries.wsu.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/2376/549/B_Wazaney_072206.pdf |archive-date=November 25, 2017}}.</ref> of New Mexico and Colorado, settled down as farmers, became potters and lived partly in [[Pueblo]]-like villages. They began subsidizing their livelihood through sales of [[mica]]ceous clay pottery and [[basketry]] and learned to farm from their [[Pueblo]] neighbors. Ollero is Spanish for "potters." Their name for themselves is ''Saidindê'' for "Sand People," "Mountain People," or "Mountain Dwellers." The Spanish rendering is ''Hoyeros'' meaning "mountain-valley people."<ref name=Griffin-Pierce380>Griffin-Pierce, 380.</ref><ref name=Goddard8>Goddard, 8.</ref><ref name=Hook_Pegler116>Hook, Pegler, 116.</ref> The [[Capote Band of Utes]] (''Kapota'', ''Kahpota'') lived east of the [[Continental Divide of the Americas|Great Divide]] south of the [[Conejos River]] and east of the [[Rio Grande]], west towards the [[Sangre de Cristo Mountains]], in the [[San Luis Valley]], along the headwaters of the Rio Grande and the [[Animas River]], centering in the vicinity of present-day [[Chama, New Mexico|Chama]] and [[Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico|Tierra Amarilla]] of [[Rio Arriba County, New Mexico|Rio Arriba County]]. They formed an alliance with the Olleros, similar to the Muache alliance with the Llanero, against the Southern Plains Tribes such as the Comanche, Southern Arapaho, Southern Cheyenne, and Kiowa, their former allies. They maintained trade relations with [[Puebloan peoples]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://historytogo.utah.gov/people/ethnic_cultures/the_history_of_utahs_american_indians/chapter5.html |title=The Northern Utes of Utah |access-date=2012-03-11 |archive-date=2016-05-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508235935/http://historytogo.utah.gov/people/ethnic_cultures/the_history_of_utahs_american_indians/chapter5.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* The ''Llaneros'', the plains people clan, a.k.a. ''Eastern Jicarilla'', lived as [[nomads]] in [[tipis]], called ''kozhan'' by the Jicarilla. They hunted buffalo on the plains east of the Rio Grande, centering along the headwaters of the Canadian River. During the winter, they lived in the mountains between the Canadian River and the Rio Grande. They camped and traded near [[Picuris Pueblo, New Mexico]], [[Pecos, New Mexico]], and [[Taos, New Mexico]]. Their name for themselves is ''Gulgahén'' for "Plains People"; the Spanish picked it up as ''Llaneros'' - "Plains Dwellers".<ref name=Griffin-Pierce380/><ref name=Hook_Pegler116/><ref name=Goddard349-350>Goddard, 349-350.</ref>

===Battle of Cieneguilla===
[[File:Southwestern Defense System before the Civil War.jpg|thumb|500px|Southwestern Defense System before the Civil War. Source:National Park Service]]The [[Battle of Cieneguilla]] (pronounced sienna-GEE-ya; English: small swamp) was an engagement of a group of Jicarilla Apaches, their [[Ute people|Ute]] allies, and the [[United States|American]] [[1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)|1st Cavalry Regiment]] on March 30, 1854,<ref>Rajtar.</ref> near what is now [[Pilar, New Mexico]].<ref>[http://web.abqtrib.com/archives/diversions04/032604_diversions_tales.shtml ''A losing battle''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929122917/http://web.abqtrib.com/archives/diversions04/032604_diversions_tales.shtml |date=2007-09-29 }} - The Albuquerque Tribune</ref>

====Background====
By the mid-1800s, tensions between the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish]], multiple [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] nations, and [[westward expansion|westward expanding]] [[Americans|United States]] settlers erupted as all sought and laid claim to land in the southwest. Diseases to which Native Americans had no [[Immunity (medical)|immunity]] "decimated" their tribes, creating greater pressure for their lands to be taken from them. As tensions among Native Americans grew and with numerous attempts to relocate them from their traditional hunting and gathering land and sacred homelands, the Jicarilla became increasingly hostile in their efforts to protect their lands.<ref name=NPS>Oliva.</ref> The United States military developed a [[Defense (military)|defense system]] of [[forts]] and troops to restrict attacks on westward travelers. Fort Union was established, in part, to provide protection from the Jicarillas. The disruption and "mutual incomprehensions" of one another's culture led to warfare among the Spanish, Native American nations, and Americans.<ref name=NPS>Oliva.</ref>

Leo E. Oliva, author of ''Fort Union and the Frontier Army in the Southwest'', notes that: "The three cultural groups in the Southwest had different concepts of family life, personal values, social relations, religion, uses and ownership of land and other property, how best to obtain the provisions of life, and warfare."<ref name=NPS/>

Fort Union was established by Colonel [[Edwin Vose Sumner]], who ordered Major [[James Henry Carleton]]'s Company K 1st [[Dragoon]]s on August 2, 1851, to protect westward travelers between [[Missouri]] and [[New Mexico Territory]] on the [[Santa Fe Trail]].<ref name=NPS/> [[List of Governors of New Mexico|New Mexico Territory]]'s Governor [[William Carr Lane]] made treaties with the Jicarilla and other Native American tribes of New Mexico to relocate them to reservations where they would peacefully take up agriculture on new lands. Both parties agreed to payments to compensate the Native Americans for their loss of access to hunting, gathering, and sacred homeland. The U.S. government, however, pulled the funding for this agreement, betraying the Native American tribal members. Further complicating the situation, all the crops planted by the tribal members failed and the people continued raiding for survival.<ref name=NPS/>

====Battle and aftermath====
[[File:Cieneguilla 2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Cenotaph]] marking where the body of a killed dragoon was found]]
In March 1854, [[Lobo Blanco]], a Jicarilla chief, led a band of 30 warriors to raid the horse herd of a contractor for Fort Union. A detachment of 2nd U.S. Dragoons, led by Lieutenant David Bell, pursued the raiders. They engaged in a fight on the Canadian River and killed many of the Jicarilla, including the chief, who was repeatedly wounded and finally crushed to death under a boulder.<ref>Haley, James L. "the Apaches:  A History and Culture Portrait ", University of Oklahoma Press Norman 1981, {{ISBN|0806129786}}</ref>

In late March, Major George A. Blake, commanding officer at Burgwin Cantonment, sent a detachment of 1st U.S. Dragoon of 60 men (company I and part of company F) to patrol along the Santa Fe trail. On March 30, 1854, a combined force of about 250 Apaches and [[Ute Tribe|Utes]] fought the U.S. [[dragoon]]s, led by Lieutenant [[John Davidson (general)|John Wynn Davidson]], near [[Pilar, New Mexico]], then known as Cieneguilla.<ref>Davidson, 72.</ref> The battle lasted for two<ref name=Gorenfeld>Gorenfeld, Will.</ref> or four hours, according to surviving soldier James A. Bennett (aka James Bronson). The Jicarilla, led by their principal chief, [[Francisco Chacon (Jicarilla chief)|Francisco Chacon]], and [[Flechas Rayadas]], fought with [[Flintlock|flintlock rifles]] and [[arrow]]s, killing 22 and a wounding another 36 of 60 dragoon soldiers, who then retreated to [[Ranchos de Taos, New Mexico|Ranchos de Taos]] lighter by 22 horses and most of the troops' supplies.<ref name=NPS/><ref>Brooks, Reeve, Bennett.</ref><ref name="Haley, James L">Haley, James L.</ref>

Lieutenant Colonel [[Philip St. George Cooke]] of the [[2nd Stryker Cavalry Regiment|2nd Dragoons Regiment]] quickly organized an expedition to pursue the Jicarilla with the help of 32 Pueblo Indian and Mexican scouts under Captain James H. Quinn, with [[Kit Carson]] as the principal guide. After a winter pursuit through the mountains, Cooke caught up with the Jicarilla. Jicarilla leader, Flechas Rayadas, offered an agreement for peace in exchange for the horses and guns that the Jicarilla acquired from the Battle, but the offer was not accepted. On April 8, Cooke's forces fought tribal members at their camp in the canyon of [[Ojo Caliente (Socorro County, New Mexico)|Ojo Caliente]]. The Jicarilla dispersed in small groups to evade further pursuit, but many died from the harsh cold weather.<ref name=NPS/><ref>Carter, 134-139.</ref><ref name="Haley, James L"/>

A large unit under Major James H. Carleton fought again the Jicarillas near Fisher's Peak in the Raton Mountains, killing several of them. Francisco Chacon replied by trying an ambush against the soldiers with 150 warriors, but his group was bypassed. Subsequently, five warriors were killed, six wounded, and seventeen women and children were scattered and may have died of cold and hunger during the flight.<ref name="Haley, James L"/> In May, Francisco Chacon sent word to Santa Fe for peace and surrendered at Abiquiu.<ref name="Haley, James L"/>

===Jicarilla reservation===
[[File:A Jicarilla Man, 1904, Edward S. Curtis (sepia restored).jpg|upright|thumb|right|Portrait of a Jicarilla man, 1904]]
[[File:Edward S. Curtis, Jicarilla maiden, New Mexico, 1905.jpg|upright|thumb|right|Portrait of a Jicarilla maiden, 1905]]
Beginning in the mid-1850s, following the westward expansion of the U.S. and its impact on their livelihoods, attempts began to [[Population transfer|relocate]] the Jicarilla Apache, who became increasingly hostile to these pressures. In addition, relations with the Spanish also became hostile when they captured and sold Apache tribal members into slavery. After years of warfare, broken treaties, relocation, and being the only southwestern tribe without a reservation, the Jicarilla Llanero and Ollero bands united in 1873. They sent a delegation to [[Washington, D.C.]], to request a [[Indian reservation|reservation]]. Eventually, U.S. President [[Grover Cleveland]] created the Jicarilla Apache Reservation through an [[executive order]] signed on February 11, 1887.<ref>Pritzker, 12-13.</ref>
	
After finally securing a reservation, it was spiritually disheartening for them to accept that they would no longer roam on their traditional holy lands and have access to their sacred places.<ref name=VelardeTiller28/> When they arrived, the two bands settled in separate areas of the Reservation. The animosities stemming from this period have persisted into the twentieth century, with the Olleros generally identified as progressives and the Llaneros as conservatives.<ref>[http://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Jicarilla-Sociopolitical-Organization.html Jicarilla - Sociopolitical organization]</ref>

The land on the reservation, except that held by non-tribal members, was not suitable for [[agriculture]]. As a means of survival, the tribe sold timber from the reservation. In 1907, additional land was secured for the reservation, totaling {{Convert|742,315|acres|km2|0}}, suitable for sheep ranching, which became profitable in the 1920s. Until that time, many people suffered from [[malnutrition]], and up to 90% of the tribe members had [[tuberculosis]] in 1914. By the 1920s, it seemed likely that the Jicarilla Apache nation may become extinct due to [[trachoma]], tuberculosis, and other diseases. After several difficult ranching periods, many of the previous [[shepherd|sheep herders]] relocated to the tribal headquarters in [[Dulce, New Mexico]]. The Jicarilla suffered due to a lack of economic opportunities for decades.<ref name=VelardeTiller28/><ref name=Pritzker13>Pritzker, 13.</ref><ref name=Griffin-Pierce381>Griffin-Pierce, 381.</ref>

Oil and gas development began on the reservation after World War II, generating up to $1 million annually. Some of this revenue was set aside for a tribal [[scholarship]] fund and to develop the Stone Lake Lodge facility.<ref name=Pritzker13/><ref name=Griffin-Pierce381/> In 1982, the [[United States Supreme Court|U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled in ''[[Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe]]'', {{ussc|455|130|1982}} that the tribe had the authority to impose [[severance taxes]] on oil companies drilling for oil and natural gas on reservation land.<ref>''Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe'', {{ussc|455|130|1982}}</ref>

As a means of repayment for lost tribal lands, the Jicarilla received a settlement in 1971 for $9.15 million.<ref name=Pritzker13/> The Jicarilla Apache made a claim for compensation to the U.S. Government when the [[Indian Claims Commission]] was created.<ref>Indian Claims Commission. Jicarilla Apache Tribe of the Jicarilla Apache Reservation, Vol. 25, Docket 22-A, p.248-49.</ref> A two-volume technical report was submitted to the Commission on Spanish and Mexican grants, both unconfirmed and confirmed as part of the case.<ref>[[Howard F. Cline]], ''Spanish and Mexican Land Grants and the Jicarilla Apache in New Mexico, 1689-1848: A Technical Report including a list of grants, confirmed and unconfirmed and summary of data''. 2 volumes, 340 pp. Maps, Bibliography. Docket 22-A, Indian Claims Commission.</ref> The tribe was awarded $9,150,000 in the commission's final judgment on April 20, 1971.<ref>Indian Claims Commission. Jicarilla Apache Tribe of the Jicarilla Apache Reservation, Vol. 25, Docket 22-A, p.248-49</ref>

In 2019, the census showed that there were 3,353 people living on the reservation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Census profile: Jicarilla Apache Nation Reservation |url=http://censusreporter.org/profiles/25200US1700R-jicarilla-apache-nation-reservation/ |access-date=2021-12-03 |website=Census Reporter |language=en}}</ref> The New Mexico Tourism Department reports that there are approximately "2,755 tribal members, most of whom live in the town of Dulce."<ref name="JA population">{{Cite web |title=Jicarilla Apache Nation |url=https://www.newmexico.org/native-culture/native-communities/jicarilla-apache-nation/ |access-date=2021-12-03 |website=www.newmexico.org |language=en-us}}</ref>