Editing Justinian I (section)

==Life==
Justinian was born in [[Tauresium]], [[Dardania (Roman province)|Dardania]],<ref>''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia'', Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2008, {{ISBN|1593394926}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ea-bAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1007 p. 1007.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723092514/https://books.google.com/books?id=ea-bAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1007 |date=23 July 2023 }}</ref><ref name="Atchity">{{cite book |title=The Classical Roman Reader: New Encounters with Ancient Rome |first=Kenneth John |last=Atchity |date=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |series= |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0KI0lU2FoIC&dq=tauresium+naissus&pg=PA358 |chapter=Justinian |isbn=978-0-521-32591-2 |page=358 |access-date=2 June 2024 |archive-date=2 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240602105742/https://books.google.com/books?id=W0KI0lU2FoIC&dq=tauresium+naissus&pg=PA358 |url-status=live }}</ref> probably in 482.<ref>[[Joannes Zonaras]] ({{Circa}} 1140) [https://archive.org/details/ioanniszonaraea00pindgoog/page/n180/mode/2up?view=theater ''Epitome'' XIV, 5]. He was crowned at the age of 45.</ref> A native speaker of [[Latin]] (possibly the last Roman emperor to be one),<ref>''The Inheritance of Rome'', Chris Wickham, Penguin Books Ltd. 2009, {{ISBN|978-0-670-02098-0}} (p. 90). Justinian referred to Latin as his native tongue in several of his laws. See Moorhead (1994), p. 18.</ref> he came from a [[peasant]] family thought to have been of either of [[Illyro-Roman]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AvjaThtrKYC&q=Justinian++latin-speaking+Illyrians&pg=PA74|title=The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=Michael Maas|date=2005|isbn=978-1139826877|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=23 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723092516/https://books.google.com/books?id=9AvjaThtrKYC&q=Justinian++latin-speaking+Illyrians&pg=PA74|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Treadgold, Warren T. (1997). A history of the Byzantine state and society. Stanford University Press. p. 246. {{ISBN|978-0-8047-2630-6}}. Retrieved 12 October 2010.</ref><ref name="Barker1966">{{cite book|last=Barker|first=John W.|title=Justinian and the later Roman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LiJljEXvwAoC&q=%22Though+he+shared+an+Illyrian%22&pg=PA75|access-date=28 November 2011|year=1966|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-03944-8|page=75|archive-date=23 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723092515/https://books.google.com/books?id=LiJljEXvwAoC&q=%22Though+he+shared+an+Illyrian%22&pg=PA75|url-status=live}}</ref> or [[Thraco-Roman]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert Browning|page=21|title=Justinian and Theodora|publisher=Gorgias Press|year=2003|isbn=978-1593330538}}</ref><ref>Shifting Genres in Late Antiquity, Hugh Elton, Geoffrey Greatrex, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2015, {{ISBN|1472443500}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aR2dBQAAQBAJ&dq=Justinian+Thracian+origin&pg=PA259 p. 259.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528122822/https://books.google.com/books?id=aR2dBQAAQBAJ&dq=Justinian+Thracian+origin&pg=PA259 |date=28 May 2023 }}</ref><ref>Pannonia and Upper Moesia: A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire, András Mócsy, [[Routledge]], 2014, {{ISBN|1317754255}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=LP9RAwAAQBAJ&dq=Justinian+Thracian+stock&pg=PA350 p. 350.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407083159/https://books.google.com/books?id=LP9RAwAAQBAJ&dq=Justinian+Thracian+stock&pg=PA350 |date=7 April 2023 }}</ref> origin. The name ''Iustinianus'', which he took later, is indicative of adoption by his uncle [[Justin I|Justin]]. During his reign, he founded [[Justiniana Prima]] not far from his birthplace.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ki1icLbr_QQC&q=Justiniana+Prima+Leskovac&pg=PA5|title=The Serbs|publisher=Wiley|author=Sima M. Cirkovic|date=2004|isbn=978-0631204718|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=23 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723093023/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ki1icLbr_QQC&q=Justiniana+Prima+Leskovac&pg=PA5|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?um=1&q=Justiniana+Prima+Site+of+an+early+Byzantine+city+located+30+km+south-west+of+Leskovac+in+Serbia&btnG=Search+Books |title=Justiniana Prima Site of an early Byzantine city located 30 km south-west of Leskovci in Kosovo|publisher=Grove's Dictionaries |year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tG0p_sZH-fEC&q=Justiniana+Prima+Leskovac&pg=PA37|title=Byzantine Constantinople: Monuments, Topography and Everyday Life|publisher=Brill|year=2001|isbn=978-9004116252|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=23 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723093017/https://books.google.com/books?id=tG0p_sZH-fEC&q=Justiniana+Prima+Leskovac&pg=PA37|url-status=live}}</ref> His mother was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin. Justin, who was commander of one of the imperial guard units (the [[Excubitors]]) before he became emperor,<ref name=dotma/> adopted Justinian, brought him to [[Constantinople]], and ensured the boy's education.<ref name=dotma/> As a result, Justinian was well educated in [[jurisprudence]], [[theology]], and Roman history.<ref name=dotma/> Justinian served as a ''candidatus'', one of 40 men selected from the [[Scholae Palatinae|''scholae palatinae'']] to serve as the emperor's personal bodyguard.{{sfn|PLRE}} The chronicler [[John Malalas]], who lived during the reign of Justinian, describes his appearance as short, fair-skinned, curly-haired, round-faced, and handsome, with receding hairline and greying hair and beard.<ref>Malalas, ''Chronicle'' 18.425</ref> Another contemporary historian, [[Procopius]], describing him in similar terms, compares Justinian's appearance to that of Emperor [[Domitian]].<ref name="CAH65">''Cambridge Ancient History'' p. 65</ref>

When Emperor [[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius]] died in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new emperor with significant help from Justinian.<ref name="dotma" /> Justinian showed a lot of ambition, and several sources claim that he was functioning as virtual [[regent]] long before Justin made him associate emperor,{{Sfn|PLRE}} although there is no conclusive evidence of this.<ref>Moorhead (1994), pp. 21–22, with a reference to Procopius, Secret History 8.3.</ref> As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the ''de facto'' ruler.<ref name="dotma" /> Following the general [[Vitalian (consul)|Vitalian]]'s assassination in 520 (orchestrated by Justinian or Justin),<ref>Justinian: Procopius, ''Secret History'' 6.28 and Victor of Tunnuna, ''Chronicle'' 523; Justin: Evagrius, ''Ecclesiastical History'' 4.3</ref> Justinian was appointed [[consul]] and commander of the army of the east.<ref name="dotma" /><ref>This post seems to have been [[titular head|titular]]; there is no evidence that Justinian had any military experience. See A.D. Lee, "The Empire at War", in Michael Maas (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian'' (Cambridge 2005), pp. 113–133 (pp. 113–114).</ref> Justinian remained Justin's close confidant, and in 525 was granted the titles of ''[[nobilissimus]]'' and ''[[Caesar (title)|caesar]]'' (heir-apparent).<ref>[[Victor of Tunnuna]] ({{Circa}} 570), [https://www.dmgh.de/mgh_auct_ant_11/#page/196/mode/1up ''Chronica'' s.a. 525] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731065304/https://www.dmgh.de/mgh_auct_ant_11/#page/196/mode/1up |date=31 July 2023 }}.</ref>{{Sfn|PLRE}} He was [[Coronation of the Byzantine emperor|crowned co-emperor]] on 1 April 527,<ref name=":0">[[Marcellinus Comes]] [https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/marcellinus2.html 527] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307050854/https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/marcellinus2.html |date=7 March 2023 }}; ''[[Chronicon Paschale]]'' [[iarchive:chronicon-p/page/108/mode/1up|527]]; [[Theophanes Confessor]] [[iarchive:chronicle-of-theophanes-the-confessor/page/264/mode/1up|AM 6019]].</ref>{{Efn|[[Constantine VII]]'s ''[[De Ceremoniis]]'' dates Justinian's coronation to 4 April,<ref>[[Constantine VII]] ({{circa}} 956), [https://books.google.com/books?id=9VQ6AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA433 ''De Ceremoniis''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307051545/https://books.google.com/books?id=9VQ6AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA433 |date=7 March 2023 }}, I 95.</ref> probably a confusion between α (1) and δ (4).}} and became sole ruler after Justin's death on 1 August 527.<ref name=":0" />

As a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as "the emperor who never sleeps" for his work habits. Nevertheless, he seems to have been amiable and easy to approach.<ref>See Procopius, ''Secret history'', ch. 13.</ref> Around 525, he married his mistress, [[Theodora (wife of Justinian I)|Theodora]], in Constantinople. She was by profession an actress and some twenty years his junior. In earlier times, Justinian could not have married her owing to her class, but his uncle, Emperor Justin I, had passed a law lifting restrictions on marriages with ex-actresses.<ref>M. Meier, ''Justinian'', p. 57.</ref><ref>P. N. Ure, ''Justinian and his age'', p. 200.</ref> Though the marriage caused a scandal, Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire. Other talented individuals included [[Tribonian]], his legal adviser;{{sfn|Bury|1958|p=41}} [[Peter the Patrician]], the diplomat and long-time head of the palace bureaucracy;{{sfn|Bury|1958|p=33}} Justinian's finance ministers [[John the Cappadocian]] and [[Peter Barsymes]], who managed to collect taxes more efficiently than any before, thereby funding Justinian's wars;{{sfn|Bury|1958|p=33}} and finally, his generals, [[Belisarius]] and [[Narses]], responsible for the re-conquest of North Africa and Italy.{{sfn|Bury|1958|p=58}}

{{multiple image
| direction         = horizontal
| align             = right
| width1            = 
| image1            = Tauresium, Macedonia1.JPG
| width2            = 
| image2            = Theodora mosaic - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna) v2.jpg
| caption1          = The ancient town of [[Tauresium]], the birthplace of Justinian I, located in today's [[North Macedonia]]. Parts of the town had been destroyed during Justinian's life.
| caption2          = Mosaic of [[Theodora (wife of Justinian I)|Theodora]], Justinian's wife
}}

Justinian's rule was not universally popular; early in his reign he nearly lost his throne during the [[Nika riots]], and a conspiracy against the emperor's life by dissatisfied entrepreneurs was discovered as late as 562.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/justinia.htm|title=DIR Justinian|publisher=Roman Emperors|date=25 July 1998|access-date=14 November 2012|archive-date=13 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413123151/http://www.roman-emperors.org/justinia.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Justinian was struck by the [[plague of Justinian|plague]] in the early 540s but recovered. Theodora died in 548<ref>Robert Browning, ''Justinian and Theodora'' (1987), 129; James Allan Evans, ''The Empress Theodora: Partner of Justinian'' (2002), 104</ref> at a relatively young age, possibly of cancer; Justinian outlived her by nearly twenty years. Justinian, who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively participated in debates on Christian doctrine,<ref>Theological treatises authored by Justinian can be found in Migne's ''[[Patrologia Graeca]]'', Vol. 86.</ref> became even more devoted to religion during the later years of his life. He died on 14 November 565,<ref>''[[Chronicon Paschale]]'' [[iarchive:chronicon-p/page/137/mode/1up|566]]; [[John of Ephesus]] [https://www.ccel.org/ccel/pearse/morefathers/files/ephesus_6_book5.htm III 5.13.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226002018/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/pearse/morefathers/files/ephesus_6_book5.htm |date=26 December 2017 }}; [[Theophanes Confessor]] [[iarchive:chronicle-of-theophanes-the-confessor/page/355/mode/1up|AM 6058]]; John Malalas [https://en.calameo.com/read/000675905f2f4bf509d49 18.1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027030636/https://en.calameo.com/read/000675905f2f4bf509d49 |date=27 October 2021 }}.</ref> childless. He was succeeded by [[Justin II]], who was the son of his sister [[Vigilantia]] and married to Sophia, the niece of Theodora. Justinian's body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]] until it was desecrated and robbed during the [[Siege of Constantinople (1204)|pillage of the city in 1204]] by the [[Frankokratia|Latin States]] of the [[Fourth Crusade]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Crowley |first=Roger |title=City of Fortune, How Venice Won and Lost a Naval Empire|year=2011|publisher=Faber & Faber Ltd. |location=London |isbn=978-0-571-24595-6 |page=109}}</ref>