Editing Kearsarge-class battleship (section)

== Design ==
[[File:USS Indiana (BB-1) - NH 73975.jpg|thumb|left|{{USS|Indiana|BB-1|6}}, the first modern US battleship]]
[[File:USS Iowa - NH 105568.jpg|thumb|left|{{USS|Iowa|BB-4|6}}, which also influenced the ''Kearsarge'' design]]
Following the authorization of the battleship {{USS|Iowa|BB-4|2}} in 1892, the [[United States Navy]] failed to order new vessels in 1893 and 1894; this was in part the result of an economic depression in 1893 that reduced naval budgets, and also the views of the new [[Secretary of the Navy]] [[Hilary A. Herbert]], who had opposed fleets of expensive battleships earlier in the decade. Nevertheless, the [[Bureau of Construction and Repair]] (C&R) continued to work on new designs, and by 1893, Herbert had been convinced by [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]]'s seminal work ''[[The Influence of Sea Power upon History]]''. In his requested budget for 1893, Herbert requested [[United States Congress|Congress]] appropriate funds for at least one new battleship. Congress delayed until 1895, when it authorized funding for two ships that were to become the ''Kearsarge'' class by the Act of 2 March 1895.{{sfn|Friedman 1985|p=30}}{{sfn|Campbell|p=141}}

Work on the new design began immediately, and by late March, four proposals had been prepared. All four marked a compromise between the high-[[freeboard (nautical)|freeboard]] ''Iowa'' and the coastal battleships of the {{sclass|Indiana|battleship|4}}; they had greater freeboard than the ''Indiana''{{'}}s, but lacked the raised [[forecastle]] that had rendered ''Iowa'' an excellent [[seakeeping|sea boat]]. Coal storage, again, represented a compromise between the two. Armor protection was increased compared to the earlier vessels, which included an improved arrangement of the armor [[deck (ship)|deck]] so that it protected a greater volume of the [[hull (watercraft)|hull]]. The main battery was to repeat the {{convert|12|in|adj=on|0}} guns used in ''Iowa'', since they fired significantly faster than the 13-inch guns the ''Indiana''s carried.{{sfn|Friedman 1985|pp=30–31}}

The designs varied considerably with regard to their armament. By this time, a new {{convert|5|in|adj=on|0}} [[quick-firing gun]] had been developed, which significantly increased the offensive power of the [[secondary armament|tertiary battery]]. The designers initially considered adopting [[gun turret]]s for these weapons, but decided against it owing to the increased weight of such an arrangement, along with problems with ammunition [[magazine (artillery)|magazines]] and fire control. All four designs arranged these in a central battery [[amidships]], which forced the secondary battery of 8-inch guns to be pushed toward the ends of the ship. The four variants adopted different arrangements for these guns: "A" called for eight guns, two in [[centerline (nautical)|centerline]] positions [[superfire|superfiring]] over the [[main battery]] and two [[wing turret]]s amidships. "B" discarded the forward turret and placed two wing turrets further forward and one superfiring aft; "C" retained the centerline turrets and discarded the wing mounts, and "D" opted for the reverse of "C".{{sfn|Friedman 1985|pp=30–31}}

C&R preferred the "A" design, since it maximized firepower, while the [[Bureau of Ordnance]] (BuOrd) believed that none of the proposals was worth pursuing. An ensign in BuOrd, [[Joseph Strauss (admiral)|Joseph Strauss]], developed a two-story turret that solved the problem; it would carry the 8-inch guns in a separate turret mounted directly atop (and fixed to) the main battery turret. Strauss accordingly proposed a fifth version, "E", that incorporated his turret. Some officers questioned whether it was advisable that the 8-inch guns could not be directed against targets other than what the 12-inch guns were engaging, but Strauss pointed out that at long range, ships were relatively small targets, and at close range, the much greater reloading time of the large guns would permit the 8-inch guns to direct the rotation of the turret while the gun crews prepared the main guns.{{sfn|Friedman 1985|pp=31–33, 35}} By this time, American naval engineers had made improvements to their gun turret designs and significant weight savings were achieved. In addition, the two-story, four-gun turret adopted for the ''Kearsarge'' class was lighter than the two-gun turrets used in the ''Indiana''s of just five years earlier.{{sfn|Friedman 2011|p=152}}

At the same time, BuOrd registered its opposition to what it viewed as a regression to 12-inch guns; while the 13-inch weapons were slower to fire, BuOrd estimated that they were 30&nbsp;percent more powerful. Experiments with {{cvt|15|in|0}} armor plate demonstrated that 12-inch guns could not penetrate that thickness even at the relatively close range of {{convert|1000|yd}}, while the 13-inch shells were capable of defeating the armor plate. C&R refused to accept BuOrd's objections, but further tests with a mock up of ''Iowa''{{'}}s belt demonstrated that the 13-inch shells could easily defeat the armor, while the 12-inch shells were kept out. The Navy decided to adopt "E", with 13-inch guns in place of the 12-inch weapons originally proposed.{{sfn|Friedman 1985|pp=35–36}}

The Navy repeated the two-story turret arrangement with the {{sclass|Virginia|battleship|1}}s designed in the early 1900s, with much the same reasoning, namely the goal of weight reduction and the belief that the faster-firing 8-inch guns could be operated without disrupting the 12-inch guns adopted for the ''Virginia''s. A new, sloped turret design remedied the problem with the overly-large gun ports of the ''Kearsarge'' turrets, but the advent of large-caliber, quick-firing guns rendered the concept a failure, since the 12-inch guns fired nearly as quickly as the 8-inch weapons, and the latter could not be fired without severe blast effects disrupting the crew of the former.{{sfn|Friedman 1985|pp=42–43}}

=== General characteristics and machinery===
[[File:Kearsarge (BB5), converted to craneship in 1920. Port bow, at wharf, 09-18-1899 - NARA - 535431.jpg|thumb|''Kearsarge'' while fitting out]]
The two ''Kearsarge''-class ships were {{convert|368|ft}} [[long at the waterline]] and {{cvt|375|ft|4|in|1}} [[length overall|long overall]], with a [[beam (nautical)|beam]] of {{cvt|72|ft|3|in}} and a [[draft (hull)|draft]] of {{cvt|23|ft|6|in}}. They [[displacement (ship)|displaced]] {{convert|11540|LT|t|lk=on}} normally, which increased to {{convert|12850|LT|t}} at [[full-load displacement|full load]]. Like the ''Indiana'' class, the ''Kearsarge'' class also had a very low freeboard, amounting to {{cvt|14|ft|6|in}} forward under normal conditions, which resulted in her guns becoming unusable in bad weather. The ships' hulls incorporated a prominent [[naval ram|ram bow]], a common feature for battleships of the period.{{sfn|Campbell|p=141}}{{sfn|Friedman 1985|p=427}}

Steering was controlled with a single [[rudder]]; while steaming at a speed of {{convert|12|kn|lk=in}}, it took ''Kearsarge'' {{cvt|475|yd}} to complete a turn to [[port and starboard|port]] and {{cvt|455|yd}} to turn to starboard. As completed, both ships carried two heavy [[military mast]]s that carried some of the vessels' light guns, along with [[spotting top]]s to help direct the aim of their guns. ''Kearsarge'' was manned by 38 officers and 548 enlisted men, while ''Kentucky'' carried 38 officers and 549 enlisted men. Their complement was later adjusted to 40&nbsp;officers and 513&nbsp;enlisted men.{{sfn|Campbell|p=141}}{{sfn|Friedman 1985|p=427}}{{sfn|Reilly & Scheina|pp=92, 94}}

The battleships had two 3-cylinder [[Marine steam engine#Triple or multiple expansion|vertical triple-expansion steam engines]] that each drove a single [[screw propeller]]. Steam for the engines was provided by five coal-fired [[Scotch marine boiler]]s, which were ducted into a pair of [[funnel (ship)|funnels]]. The ships' engines were designed to produce a total of {{convert|10000|ihp|kW|lk=on}} for a top speed of {{convert|16|kn}}. During [[sea trial]]s, the indicated horsepower and speed exceeded the design, with ''Kearsarge''{{'}}s engines producing a total of {{convert|11674|ihp}} for {{convert|16.8|kn}} and ''Kentucky''{{'}}s propulsion system reaching {{convert|12179|ihp}} for {{convert|16.9|kn}}. Coal storage amounted to {{convert|410|LT|t}} normally and up to {{convert|1591|LT|t}} at full load. At a cruising speed of {{convert|10|kn}}, the ships could steam for {{convert|5070|nmi|lk=in}}.{{sfn|Friedman 1985|p=427}}{{sfn|Reilly & Scheina|p=94}}

=== Armament ===
[[File:Kearsarge - det1994013792 01.jpg|left|upright=1.2|thumb|alt=A smaller turret on top of a bigger turret.|''Kearsarge''{{'}}s after double turret]]

The ''Kearsarge''-class battleships had two double turrets, with two [[13"/35 caliber gun|{{convert|13|in|mm|adj=on}}/35 caliber guns]] and two [[8"/35 caliber gun|{{cvt|8|in|0}}/35 caliber guns]] each, stacked in two levels. The guns and turret armor were designed by BuOrd, while the turret itself was designed by C&R. Since the turrets retained the vertical walls of the type used in the first generation of American battleships, the ports had to be very large to allow for sufficient [[Elevation (ballistics)|elevation]]. Then-Lieutenant [[William Sims]] noted that the floors of the turrets could be easily seen through the ports, and claimed that as a result, a shell fired into the port could reach the magazines below, disabling the guns.{{sfn|Friedman 2011|p=152}}{{sfn|Friedman 1985|pp=17, 30–32}}

The 13-inch weapons were [[built-up gun]]s of the Mark II type, mounted in Mark III turrets that were electrically trained. They were originally supplied with [[brown powder]] [[propellant]] charges that weighed nearly {{cvt|500|lb}}, later being replaced by {{cvt|180|lb}} [[smokeless powder|smokeless]] charges. The shells had a [[muzzle velocity]] of {{cvt|2000|ft/s}}, and at the [[Muzzle (firearms)|muzzle]], could penetrate up to {{cvt|25|in}} of standard steel, and at a range of {{cvt|2500|yd}}, could pierce {{cvt|20|in}} of steel. The turrets allowed depression to −5&nbsp;degrees and elevation to 15&nbsp;degrees, which provided a maximum range of {{cvt|12100|yd}}, though this was significantly in excess of what could be achieved with the rudimentary gunnery direction equipment at the time; BuOrd recommended that crews open fire at {{cvt|8000|yd}}, and even this was optimistic. The [[rate of fire]] was one shot every 320&nbsp;seconds, and the guns had to be returned to 2&nbsp;degrees elevation to be reloaded.{{sfn|Friedman 2011|pp=165–167}}

The 8-inch guns were the Mark IV version, which had a muzzle velocity of {{cvt|2080|ft/s}}. Also originally brown-powder guns, they, too, received updated smokeless charges in the early 1900s. The change improved the rate of fire from one shot per minute to one shot every forty seconds. Reloading was also fixed at 0&nbsp;degrees. They were mounted in Mark IX turrets that were fixed atop the main battery turrets. The arrangement was adopted because the significantly higher rate of fire of the 8-inch guns was thought to reduce interference between the guns, but with the adoption of smokeless propellant and rapid fire for the main battery in the early 1900s proved this to be an incorrect assumption.{{sfn|Friedman 2011|pp=167, 174–176}}

The turret guns were supported by a battery of fourteen [[5"/40 caliber gun|5&nbsp;in/40 caliber guns]] mounted individually in [[casemate]]s in the upper deck, seven on each [[Broadside (naval)|broadside]]. Once the ships entered service, it was discovered that the central battery had been placed too close to the waterline, and the casemates were frequently washed out, rendering them unusable in all but calm seas.{{sfn|Campbell|p=141}}{{sfn|DANFS Kentucky (BB-6)}} For defense against torpedo boats, they also carried twenty [[QF 6-pounder Hotchkiss|6-pounder ({{convert|57|mm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}}) Hotchkiss guns]] and eight [[QF 1 pounder pom-pom|1-pounder]] ({{convert|37|mm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}}) guns. These were also in individual open mounts distributed around the decks and [[fighting top]]s of the [[Mast (sailing)|masts]]; eight of the 57&nbsp;mm guns were placed in a broadside battery one deck above the 5-inch guns, four on either side. Four more were placed in casemates in the bow, and another four were similarly arranged toward the stern.{{sfn|Campbell|p=141}}{{sfn|Friedman 2011|p=183}} The ships also carried a pair of [[M1895 Colt–Browning machine gun]] chambered in [[6mm Lee Navy|{{cvt|6|mm}} Lee Navy]].{{sfn|Friedman 1985|p=427}}

As was customary for battleships of the period, the ''Kearsarge''-class carried four [[American 18 inch torpedo|{{cvt|18|in|0}}]] [[torpedo tube]]s. These were placed in above-water mounts in the hull; two were placed abreast of the forward main battery turret and the other two were placed on either side of the aft [[superstructure]].{{sfn|Campbell|p=141}} The tubes were supplied with a total of six [[torpedo]]es.{{sfn|Friedman 1985|p=427}} They were initially equipped with the Mark II Whitehead design, which carried a {{convert|140|lb|adj=on}} [[warhead]] and had a range of {{convert|800|yd}} at a speed of {{convert|27|kn}}.{{sfn|Friedman 2011|p=341}}

=== Armor ===
[[File:USS Kearsarge Brassey's.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Top and profile drawing as depicted in [[Brassey's Naval Annual]], showing the arrangement of the guns and armor]]

The ships were protected with face-hardened [[Harvey armor]], an improvement over earlier [[compound armour|compound plates]]. The main [[strake]] of the [[belt armor]] extended from the forward [[fire room|boiler room]]
to the aft main battery [[barbette]], and covered a section of the hull from {{cvt|3|ft|6|in}} above the [[waterline]] and {{cvt|4|ft}} below the line. It was {{cvt|16.5|in|0}} thick at the top, gradually tapering to {{cvt|13.25|in|0}} at the waterline, and reducing further to {{cvt|9.5|in|0}} at the bottom edge of the belt. Forward of the boiler rooms, the belt was reduced to a maximum thickness of {{cvt|10.5|in|0}}, and from the forward barbette, slimmed further to {{cvt|4|in|0}}. Transverse [[Bulkhead (partition)|bulkheads]] that were {{cvt|10|in|0}} forward and {{cvt|12|in|0}} aft connected the belt on both sides of the ships. Above the main strake was a second one that was 5&nbsp;in thick, extending from the forward to aft barbette.{{sfn|Campbell|p=141}}

The belt structure was reinforced by a curved armor deck that was curved at the sides and connected to the bottom edge of the belt. The flat portion of the deck was level with the upper edge of the belt, and it was {{cvt|2.75|in|0}} thick. Forward, where the belt was significantly reduced in thickness, the deck was increased slightly to {{cvt|3|in|0}}; aft, where there was no side protection, the deck was more significantly strengthened, being 5&nbsp;in thick. The [[conning tower]] had 10&nbsp;in thick sides and a {{convert|2|in|mm|adj=mid|-thick}} roof.{{sfn|Campbell|p=141}}{{sfn|Friedman 1985|p=427}}

Armor protection for the 13-inch turrets amounted to {{cvt|15|to|17|in|0}} on the sides and {{cvt|25|in}} on the rear to balance the turrets, while the 8-inch turrets received {{cvt|6|to|11|in|0}} on the sides and {{cvt|9|in}} on the rears. Their roofs were {{cvt|3.5|in|0}} and 2&nbsp;inches thick for the 13-inch and 8-inch turrets, respectively. The turrets rested in armored barbettes that were {{cvt|12.5|to|15|in|0}} thick. The 5-inch gun battery, which was placed directly above the upper belt, received 6&nbsp;in of armor plating.{{sfn|Campbell|p=141}} The casemate battery lacked splinter screens between each gun, a significant shortcoming since a single hit could disable numerous guns.{{sfn|Friedman 1985|pp=37, 427}}

===Modifications===
After the US Navy introduced rapid-firing for main guns in 1903, ''Kearsarge'' and ''Kentucky'' had automatic shutters installed in the ammunition hoists to prevent an explosion in the turret from traveling down to the magazines. After a propellant charge was accidentally detonated by an electrical short aboard ''Kentucky'' in April 1906, most electrical equipment was removed from the ships' turrets and additional precautions were installed, including bulkheads between the guns in each turret and gas evacuators in the [[Breechloader|breeches]] of the guns to prevent propellant gasses from blowing back into the turrets.{{sfn|Friedman 2011|p=152}}

Between 1909 and 1911, most of the 57&nbsp;mm guns were removed and four more 5-inch guns were installed. The original military masts were replaced with [[lattice mast]]s, and the torpedo tubes were also removed. The ships also had their original boilers replaced with eight Mosher boilers.{{sfn|Campbell|p=141}} The ships underwent another refit by 1919 that included the removal of all but eight of the 5-inch guns. The guns that were removed were used to arm merchant ships to defend themselves against German [[U-boat]] attacks. A pair of [[3"/50 caliber gun|{{cvt|3|in}}]] [[anti-aircraft gun]]s were installed aboard each vessel.{{sfn|Campbell|p=141}} At some point in the ships' careers, splinter bulkheads were added to the 5-inch battery to improve survivability.{{sfn|Friedman 1985|pp=175, 427}}