Editing Knossos (section)

== History ==

===Neolithic period===
Knossos was settled around 7000 BC during the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic]], making it the oldest known settlement in Crete. Radiocarbon dating has suggested dates around 7,030-6,780 BCE.<ref>Facorellis, Yorgos & Maniatis, Y. (2013). Radiocarbon Dates from the Neolithic Settlement of Knossos: An Overview. 10.2307/j.ctt5vj96p.17.</ref> The initial settlement was a hamlet of 25–50 people who lived in [[wattle and daub]] huts, kept animals, grew crops, and, in the event of tragedy, buried their children under the floor. Remains from this period are concentrated in the area which would later become the central court of the palace, suggesting continuity in ritual activity.<ref name="McD12" /><ref>{{cite book | title=The prehistory of Asia Minor: from complex hunter-gatherers to early urban societies | first=Bleda S | last=Düring | location=New York| publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2011 | page=126}}</ref><ref name="McEnroe 2010 12–17">{{cite book | title=Architecture of Minoan Crete: constructing identity in the Aegean Bronze Age | first=John C | last=McEnroe | location=Austin | publisher=University of Texas Press | year=2010 | pages=12–17}}</ref>

[[File:Neolithic pottery, AMH, 079001.jpg|thumb|Bowl with fork handles, pottery. Knossos, Early Neolithic, 6500–5800 BC. Also a ladle, and a three-legged vessel from later periods]]
In the [[Early Neolithic]] (6000–5000 BC), a village of 200–600 persons occupied most of the area of the later palace and the slopes to the north and west. Residents lived in one- or two-room square houses of mud-brick walls set on [[socle (architecture)|socle]]s of stone, either field stone or recycled stone artifacts. The inner walls were lined with mud-plaster. The roofs were flat, composed of mud over branches. The residents dug hearths at various locations in the centre of the main room. This village had an unusual feature: one house under the West Court contained eight rooms and covered {{convert|50|m2|sqft| abbr=on}}. The walls were at right angles and the door was centred. Large stones were used for support under points of greater stress. The fact that distinct sleeping cubicles for individuals was not the custom suggests storage units of some sort.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

The settlement of the [[Middle Neolithic]] (5000–4000 BC), housed 500–1000 people in more substantial and presumably more family-private homes. Construction was the same, except the windows and doors were timbered, a fixed, raised hearth occupied the centre of the main room, and [[pilaster]]s and other raised features (cabinets, beds) occupied the perimeter. Under the palace was the Great House, a {{convert|100|m2|sqft|abbr=on}} area stone house divided into five rooms with meter-thick walls suggesting a second storey was present. The presence of the house, which is unlikely to have been a private residence like the others, suggests a communal or public use; i.e., it may have been the predecessor of a palace. In the [[Late Neolithic|Late]] or Final Neolithic (two different but overlapping classification systems, around 4000–3000 BC), the population increased dramatically.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

===Bronze Age===
{{see also|Minoan civilization|Minoan pottery|Minoan chronology}}
{| class="wikitable floatright border: gray solid 1px; text-align: center; background: white;"
|- style="background: #ececec;"
|+Minoan chronology
!Timespan!!colspan=2|Period
|-
| 3100–2650{{nbsp}}BC
| EM I
| rowspan="4"| Prepalatial
|-
| 2650–2200{{nbsp}}BC
| EM II
|-
| 2200–2100{{nbsp}}BC
| EM III
|-
| 2100–1925{{nbsp}}BC
| MM IA
|-
| 1925–1875{{nbsp}}BC
| MM IB
| rowspan="2"| Protopalatial
|-
| 1875–1750{{nbsp}}BC
| MM II
|-
| 1750–1700{{nbsp}}BC
| MM III
| rowspan="3"| Neopalatial
|-
| 1700–1625{{nbsp}}BC
| LM IA
|-
| 1625–1470{{nbsp}}BC
| LM IB
|-
| 1470–1420{{nbsp}}BC
| LM II
| rowspan="4"| Postpalatial
|-
| 1420–1330{{nbsp}}BC
| LM IIIA
|-
| 1330–1200{{nbsp}}BC
| LM IIIB
|-
| 1200–1075{{nbsp}}BC
| LM IIIC
|}
It is believed that the first Cretan palaces were built soon after {{circa|2000 BC}}, in the early part of the Middle Minoan period, at Knossos and other sites including [[Malia (archaeological site)|Malia]], [[Phaistos|Phaestos]] and [[Zakros|Zakro]]. These palaces, which were to set the pattern of organisation in Crete and Greece through the second millennium, were a sharp break from the Neolithic village system that had prevailed thus far. The building of the palaces implies greater wealth and a concentration of authority, both political and religious. It is suggested that they followed eastern models such as those at [[Ugarit]] on the Syrian coast and [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] on the upper Euphrates.<ref name="BM9">{{harvnb|Bury|Meiggs|1975|p=9}}</ref>

The early palaces were destroyed during Middle Minoan II, sometime before {{circa|1700}}, almost certainly by earthquakes to which Crete is prone. By {{circa|1650}}, they had been rebuilt on a grander scale and the period of the second palaces ({{circa|1650|1450}}) marks the height of Minoan prosperity. All the palaces had large central courtyards which may have been used for public ceremonies and spectacles. Living quarters, storage rooms and administrative centres were positioned around the court and there were also working quarters for skilled craftsmen.<ref name="BM9"/>

The palace of Knossos was by far the largest, covering three acres with its main building alone and five acres when separate out-buildings are considered. It had a monumental staircase leading to state rooms on an upper floor. A ritual cult centre was on the ground floor. The palace stores occupied sixteen rooms, the main feature in these being the ''[[pithos|pithoi]]'' that were large storage jars up to five feet tall. They were mainly used for storage of oil, wool, wine, and grain. Smaller and more valuable objects were stored in lead-lined [[cist]]s. The palace had bathrooms, toilets, and a drainage system.<ref name="BM9"/> A theatre was found at Knossos that would have held 400 spectators (an earlier one has been found at Phaestos). The orchestral area was rectangular, unlike later Athenian models, and they were probably used for religious dances.<ref name="BM10">{{harvnb|Bury|Meiggs|1975|p=10}}</ref>

Building techniques at Knossos were typical. The foundations and lower course were stonework with the whole built on a timber framework of beams and pillars. The main structure was built of large, unbaked bricks. The roof was flat with a thick layer of clay over brushwood. Internal rooms were brightened by light-wells and columns of wood, many fluted, were used to lend both support and dignity. The chambers and corridors were decorated with frescoes showing scenes from everyday life and scenes of processions. Warfare is conspicuously absent. The fashions of the time may be seen in depictions of women in various poses. They had elaborately dressed hair and wore long dresses with flounced skirts and puffed sleeves. Their bodices were tightly drawn in round their waists and their breasts were exposed.<ref name="BM10"/>

The prosperity of Knossos was primarily based upon the development of native Cretan resources such as oil, wine, and wool. Another factor was the expansion of trade, evidenced by Minoan pottery found in Egypt, Syria, Anatolia, Rhodes, the Cyclades, Sicily, and mainland Greece. There seem to have been strong Minoan connections with Rhodes, Miletus, and Samos. Cretan influence may be seen in the earliest scripts found in Cyprus. The main market for Cretan wares was the Cyclades where there was a demand for pottery, especially the stone vases. It is not known whether the islands were subject to Crete or just trading partners, but there certainly was strong Cretan influence.<ref name="BM12">{{harvnb|Bury|Meiggs|1975|pp=11–12}}</ref>

Around 1450 BC, the palaces at Malia, Phaestos, and Zakros were destroyed, leaving Knossos as the sole surviving palace on Crete. In this final period, Knossos seems to have been influenced or perhaps ruled by people from the mainland. [[Greek language|Greek]] became the administrative language and the material culture shows parallels with [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] styles, for instance in the architecture of tombs and styles of pottery.<ref name="BM17">{{harvnb|Bury|Meiggs|1975|pp=17–18}}</ref>

Around 1350 BC, the palace was destroyed and not rebuilt. The building was ravaged by a fire which triggered the collapse of the upper stories. It is not known whether this final destruction was intentional or the result of a natural disaster such as an earthquake. While parts of the palace may have been used for later ceremonies and the town of Knossos saw a resurgence around 1200 BC, the building and its associated institutions were never restored.<ref name="McD12">{{harvnb|MacDonald|2012|p=464}}</ref>

=== Classical and Roman period ===
{{Primary sources section|date=January 2024}}
[[File:Monnaie - Drachme, Argent, Cnossos, Crète - btv1b8570697m (2 of 2).jpg|thumb|A coin of Knossos, depicting a [[Labyrinth]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wroth |first=Warwick |author-link=Warwick Wroth |url=https://archive.org/details/cataloguegreekc00wrotgoog |title=Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Crete and the Aegean Islands |publisher=Order of the Trustees |year=1886 |pages=xxxiv}}</ref>]]
After the Bronze Age, the town of Knossos continued to be occupied. By 1000 BC, it had reemerged as one of the most important centres of Crete. The city had two ports, one at [[Amnisos]] and another at [[Heraklion]].

According to the ancient geographer [[Strabo]] the Knossians colonized the city of [[Brindisi|Brundisium]] in Italy.<ref>[[Strabo]], 6,3,6.</ref> In 343 BC, Knossos was allied with [[Philip II of Macedon]]. The city employed a [[Phocis|Phocian]] mercenary named [[Phalaikos]] against their enemy, the city of [[Lyttus]]. The Lyttians appealed to the [[Sparta]]ns who sent their king [[Archidamus III]] against the Knossians.<ref>[[Diodorus Siculus]], XVI 61,3–4.</ref> In Hellenistic times Knossos came under [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Egyptian]] influence, but despite considerable military efforts during the [[Chremonidean War]] (267–261 BC), the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] were not able to unify the warring city states. In the third century BC Knossos expanded its power to dominate almost the entire island, but during the [[Lyttian War]] in 220 BC it was checked by a coalition led by the [[Polyrrhenia]]ns and the [[Macedon]]ian king [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip V]].<ref>[[Polybius]], ''Histories'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0234%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D53 IV 53–55].</ref>

Twenty years later, during the [[Cretan War (205–200 BC)]], the Knossians were once more among Philip's opponents and, through [[Roman Republic|Roman]] and [[Rhodes|Rhodian]] aid, this time they managed to liberate Crete from the Macedonian influence.<ref>Theocharis Detorakis, ''A History of Crete'', Heraklion, 1994.</ref> With Roman aid, Knossos became once more the first city of Crete, but, in 67 BC, the Roman Senate chose [[Gortys]] as the capital of the newly created province [[Crete and Cyrenaica|Creta et Cyrene]].<ref name="unrv2">{{cite web | url = http://www.unrv.com/provinces/crete.php | title = Crete | access-date = 2016-11-24 | publisher = UNRV.com}}</ref> In 36 BC, Knossos became a [[Colonia (Rome)|Roman colony]] named ''Colonia Iulia Nobilis''.<ref name=Sweetman2011>{{cite journal|last1=Sweetman|first1=Rebecca J.|title=Roman Knossos: Discovering the City through the Evidence of Rescue Excavations|journal=The Annual of the British School at Athens|date=10 June 2011|volume=105|pages=339–379|doi=10.1017/S0068245400000459|s2cid=191885145}}</ref> The colony, which was built using [[Ancient Roman architecture|Roman-style architecture]],<ref name=Sweetman2011/> was situated within the vicinity of the palace, but only a small part of it has been excavated.

The identification of Knossos with the Bronze Age site is supported by the Roman coins that were scattered over the fields surrounding the pre-excavation site, then a large mound named [[Kephala|Kephala Hill]], elevation {{convert|85|m|ft|abbr=on}} from current sea level. Many of them were inscribed with Knosion or Knos on the obverse and an image of a Minotaur or Labyrinth on the reverse.<ref>{{harvnb|Gere|2009|p=25}}.</ref> The coins came from the Roman settlement of ''Colonia Julia Nobilis Cnossus'', a Roman colony placed just to the north of, and politically including, Kephala. The Romans believed they were the first to colonize Knossos.<ref>{{cite book|title=From Minoan farmers to Roman traders: sidelights on the economy of ancient Crete|last=Chaniotis|first=Angelos|publisher=Steiner|year=1999|location=Stuttgart|pages=280–282}}</ref>

===Post-Roman history===
In 325, Knossos became a [[diocese]], suffragan of the [[metropolitan see]] of [[Gortyna]].<ref name="pat">Demetrius Kiminas, ''The Ecumenical Patriarchate'', 2009, {{isbn|1434458768}}, p. 122</ref> In [[Ottoman Crete]], the see of Knossos was in [[Agios Myron]], 14&nbsp;km to the southwest.<ref name="pat" /> The bishops of [[Gortyn]] continued to call themselves bishops of Knossos until the nineteenth century.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Making of the Cretan Landscape|author=Oliver Rackham and Jennifer Moody|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1996|isbn=0-7190-3646-1|pages=94, 104}}</ref> The diocese was abolished in 1831.<ref name="pat" />

During the ninth century AD the local population shifted to the new town of Chandax (modern [[Heraklion]]). By the thirteenth century, it was called the Makruteikhos 'Long Wall'.

[[Knossos (modern history)|In its modern history]], the name Knossos is used only for the archaeological site. It was extensively excavated by [[Arthur Evans]] in the early 20th century, and Evans' residence at the site served as a military headquarters during [[World War II]]. Knossos is now situated in the expanding suburbs of Heraklion.