Editing Lamination (section)

== Materials ==

There are different lamination processes, depending primarily on the type or types of materials to be laminated. The materials used in laminates can be identical or different, depending on the object to be laminated, the process and the desired properties.

=== Textile ===

[[Laminated fabric]] are widely used in different fields of human activity, including medical and military.<ref name="1-59124-756-X">{{Cite book|last=Fung|first=Walter|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/57250766|title=Coated and laminated textiles|date=2002|publisher=CRC Press|others=Textile Institute|isbn=1-59124-756-X|location=Boca Raton, FL|oclc=57250766}}</ref>{{Rp|page=148}} Woven fabrics (organic and inorganic based) are usually laminated by different chemical polymers to give them useful properties like chemical resistance, dust, grease, [[photoluminescence]] (glowing and other light-effects e.g. in [[high-visibility clothing]]), [[Tear resistance|tear strength]], stiffness, thickness, and being wind proof .<ref name="Fung-2002">{{Cite book|title=Coated and Laminated Textiles {{!}} ScienceDirect|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9781855735767/coated-and-laminated-textiles|access-date=2021-11-26|isbn=9781855735767 |language=en |last1=Fung |first1=W. |date=9 May 2002 |publisher=Woodhead }}</ref>{{R|name=1-59124-756-X|page=|pages=2,16,18}} [[Coated fabrics]] may be considered as a subtype of laminated fabrics.{{R|name=1-59124-756-X|page=1}} [[Nonwoven fabric]]s (e.g. fiberglass) are also often laminated. According to a 2002 source, the nonwovens fabric industry was the biggest single consumer of different polymer binding resins.{{R|name=1-59124-756-X|page=16}}

Materials used in production of coated and laminated fabrics are generally subjected to heat treatment.{{R|name=1-59124-756-X|page=32}} [[Thermoplastic]]s and [[Thermosetting polymer|thermosetting]] plastics (e.g. [[formaldehyde]] polymers) are equally used in laminating and coating textile industry.{{R|name=1-59124-756-X|page=32}}
In 2002 primary materials used included [[polyvinyl acetate]], [[Acrylic resin|acrylics]], [[polyvinyl chloride]] (PVC), [[polyurethane]]s, and [[Natural rubber|natural]] and [[synthetic rubber]]s.{{R|name=1-59124-756-X|page=33}} [[Copolymer]]s and terpolymers were also in use.{{R|name=1-59124-756-X|page=33}}

Thin-films of plastics were in wide use as well. Materials varied from [[polyethylene]] and [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] to [[kapton]] depending on application. In automotive industry for example the PVC/[[Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene|acrylonitrilebutadiene-styrene]] (ABS) mixtures were often applied for interiors by laminating onto a [[polyurethane foam]] to give a soft-touch properties.{{R|name=1-59124-756-X|page=42}} Specialty films were used in protective clothing, .e.g. [[polytetrafluoroethylene]] (PTFE), [[polyurethane]] etc.{{R|name=1-59124-756-X|page=42}}

=== Glass ===
{{Main|Laminated glass}}

[[Plastic film]] can be used to laminate either side of a sheet of [[glass]]. Vehicle [[windshield]]s are commonly made as [[Sandwich-structured composite|composites]] created by laminating a tough plastic film between two layers of glass. This is to prevent shards of glass detaching from the windshield in case it breaks.

=== Wood ===

[[Plywood]] is a common example of a laminate using the same material in each layer combined with an adhesive. Glued and laminated dimensional timber is used in the construction industry to make beams ([[glued laminated timber]], or ''Glulam''), in sizes larger and stronger than those that can be obtained from single pieces of wood. Another reason to laminate wooden strips into beams is quality control, as with this method each and every strip can be inspected before it becomes part of a highly stressed component.

Examples of laminate materials include [[melamine]] adhesive countertop surfacing and [[plywood]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Alan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RjmKuHpTC6EC&q=Examples+of+laminate+materials+include+melamine+surfacing+and+plywood&pg=PA99|title=An Introduction to Radiation Protection 6E|last2=Harbison|first2=Sam|last3=Beach|first3=Karen|last4=Cole|first4=Peter|date=2012-03-30|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781444146073|language=en}}</ref> [[Decorative laminate]]s and some modern [[Millwork (building material)|millwork]] components are produced with decorative papers with a layer of overlay on top of the decorative paper, set before pressing them with thermoprocessing into high-pressure decorative laminates (HPDL).<ref>{{cite web|date=21 January 2015|title=What Is Post-Formed Plastic Laminate?|url=http://deloriectd.com/post-formed-plastic-laminate/|access-date=15 February 2015|publisher=Delorie Countertops and Doors|archive-date=11 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711065214/https://deloriectd.com/post-formed-plastic-laminate/|url-status=live}}</ref> A new type of HPDL is produced using real [[wood veneer]] or [[multilaminar veneer]] as top surface.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} High-pressure laminates consists of laminates "molded and cured at pressures not lower than 1,000&nbsp;lb per sq in.(70&nbsp;kg per cm<sup>2</sup>) and more commonly in the range of 1,200 to 2,000&nbsp;lb per sq in. (84 to 140&nbsp;kg per cm<sup>2</sup>).<ref>McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture & Construction</ref> Meanwhile, low pressure laminate is defined as "a plastic laminate molded and cured at pressures in general of 400 pounds per square inch (approximately 27 atmospheres or 2.8&nbsp;×&nbsp;106 pascals).<ref>McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms, 6E, Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.</ref>

=== Paper ===
[[File:Smithsonian Folklife Festival 2011 - PARTICIPANT HOSPITALITY.JPG|thumb|upright=1|A paper sign that has been laminated so it could be used outdoors]]
[[Corrugated fiberboard]] boxes are examples of laminated structures, where an inner core provides rigidity and strength, and the outer layers provide a smooth surface. A starch-based adhesive is usually used.

Laminating paper products, such as [[photographs]], can prevent them from becoming creased, faded, water damaged, wrinkled, stained, smudged, abraded, or marked by grease or fingerprints. [[Photo identification]] cards and [[credit card]]s are almost always laminated with plastic film. Boxes and other containers may be laminated using heat seal layers, extrusion coatings, pressure sensitive adhesives, [[UV coating]], etc.

Lamination is also used in sculpture using wood or resin. An example of an artist who used lamination in his work is the American [[Floyd Shaman]].

Laminates can be used to add properties to a surface, usually printed paper, that would not have them otherwise, such as with the use of lamination paper.  Sheets of [[Polyvinyl chloride|vinyl]] impregnated with [[magnetism|ferro-magnetic]] material can allow portable printed images to bond to magnets, such as for a custom bulletin board or a visual presentation.  Specially surfaced plastic sheets can be laminated over a printed image to allow them to be safely written upon, such as with [[dry erase]] markers or chalk.  Multiple translucent printed images may be laminated in layers to achieve certain visual effects or to hold [[hologram|holographic]] images.  Printing businesses that do commercial lamination keep a variety of laminates on hand, as the process for bonding different types is generally similar when working with thin materials.

Paper is normally laminated on [[particleboard|particle]] or [[fiberboard]]s giving a good-looking and resistant surface for use as [[furniture]], decoration [[Panel painting|panel]]s and [[flooring]].<ref name=PST>{{cite book |last1=Paulapuro |first1=Hannu |title=Paper and Board grades |series= Papermaking Science and Technology |volume= 18 |year= 2000|publisher= Fapet Oy|location= Finland|isbn= 952-5216-18-7 |pages= 108–111|chapter= 5}}</ref>

Paper laminations are also used in [[packaging]]. For example, [[Juicebox (container)|juicebox]]es are fabricated from [[liquid packaging board]] which is usually six layers of paper, polyethylene, and aluminum foil. Paper is used in the lamination to shape the product and give the juicebox an extra source of strength.

The base is most often [[particleboard|particle]]- or [[fiberboard]]s, then some layers of absorbent [[kraft paper]]. The last layers are a ''decor paper'' covered with an ''overlay''. The lamination papers are covered with an inert [[resin]], often [[melamine]], which is cured to form a hard [[Composite material|composite]] with the structure of paper. The laminates may also have a [[wikt:lining#Noun|lining]] on the back side of ''laminating kraft'' to compensate for the tension created by the top side lamination. Cheaper particle boards may have only a lining of laminating kraft to give surface washability and resistance to wear.

The ''decor paper'' can also be processed under heat and low/high pressure to create a melamine laminated sheet, that has several applications. The absorbent kraft paper is a normal [[kraft paper]] with controlled [[Absorption (chemistry)|absorbency]], which means a high degree of [[porosity]]. It is made of clean low [[Kappa number|kappa]] hardwood kraft with good [[Uniformity (chemistry)|uniformity]]. The [[grammage]] is 80 - 120 g/m<sup>2</sup> and normally 2-4 plies are used.<ref name=PST /> The decor paper is the most critical of the lamination papers as it gives the visual appearance of the laminate. The impregnation [[resin]] and [[cellulose]] have about the same [[refraction index]] which means that the cellulose fibers of the [[paper]] appear as a shade and only the [[dyestuff]]s and [[pigment]]s are visible. Due to this the decor paper demands extreme cleanness and is produced only on small [[paper machine]]s with [[grammage]] 50 - 150 g/m<sup>2</sup>.<ref name=PST /> The overlay paper have [[grammage]] of 18 – 50&nbsp;m<sup>2</sup> and is made of pure [[cellulose]], thus it must be made of well delignified [[pulp (paper)|pulp]]. It becomes transparent after impregnation letting the appearance of the decor paper come through. The laminating kraft have a [[grammage]] of 70 - 150 g/m<sup>2</sup> and is a smooth dense [[kraft paper]].<ref name=PST />

{{see also|Plastic-coated paper}}

=== Metal ===

Electrical equipment such as [[transformer]]s and [[electric motor|motors]] usually use an [[Electrical steel|electrical steel laminate coatings]] to form the core of the [[electromagnetic coil|coils]] used to produce [[magnetic field]]s. The thin lamination reduces the power loss due to [[eddy current]]s. [[Fiber metal laminate]] is an example of thin metal laminated by, a glass fiber-reinforced and epoxy-glued sheets.

=== Microelectronics ===

Lamination is widely used in production of electronic components such as PV solar cells.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Steim|first1=R.|last2=Chabrecek|first2=P.|last3=Sonderegger|first3=U.|last4=Kindle-Hasse|first4=B.|last5=Siefert|first5=W.|last6=Kroyer|first6=T.|last7=Reinecke|first7=P.|last8=Lanz|first8=T.|last9=Geiger|first9=T.|last10=Hany|first10=R.|last11=Nüesch|first11=F.|date=2015-05-11|title=Laminated fabric as top electrode for organic photovoltaics|journal=Applied Physics Letters|volume=106|issue=19|pages=193301|doi=10.1063/1.4919940|bibcode=2015ApPhL.106s3301S |s2cid=119779721 |issn=0003-6951|doi-access=free}}</ref>