Editing Languages of Europe (section)

== Indo-European languages ==
{{See also|Indo-European languages|List of Indo-European languages}}

The [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]] is descended from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]], which is believed to have been spoken thousands of years ago. Early speakers of Indo-European daughter languages most likely expanded into Europe with the incipient [[European Bronze Age|Bronze Age]], around 4,000 years ago ([[Bell-Beaker culture]]).

=== Germanic ===
[[File:Germanic languages in Europe.png|300px|thumb|right|
The present-day distribution of the Germanic languages in Europe:{{parabreak}}
North Germanic languages
{{legend|#02FDFF|[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]}}
{{legend|#1FC5FC|[[Faroese language|Faroese]]}}
{{legend|#0080FF|[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]}}
{{legend|#003F80|[[Swedish language|Swedish]]}}
{{legend|#0433FF|[[Danish language|Danish]]}}
West Germanic Languages
{{legend|#FCA502|[[English language|English]]}}
{{legend|#FD7B24|[[Scots language|Scots]]}}
{{legend|#E2BD00|[[Frisian languages|Frisian]]}}
{{legend|#FFF435|[[Dutch language|Dutch]]}}
{{legend|#ADFF2F|[[Low German]]}}
{{legend|#018000|[[High German]]}}
Dots indicate areas where [[multilingualism]] is common.]]

The [[Germanic languages]] make up the predominant language family in Western, [[Northern Europe|Northern]] and [[Central Europe]]. It is estimated that over 500 million Europeans are speakers of Germanic languages,<ref>{{Citation |title=Germanic languages |date=2025-01-03 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languages#CITEREFK%C3%B6nigvan_der_Auwera1994 |access-date=2025-01-13 |language=en}}</ref> the largest groups being [[German-speaking Europe|German]] ({{circa}} 95 million), [[English language in Europe|English]] ({{circa}} 400 million){{citation needed|date=January 2024}}, [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ({{circa}} 24 million), [[Swedish language|Swedish]] ({{circa}} 10 million), [[Danish language|Danish]] ({{circa}} 6 million), [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ({{circa}} 5 million)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sipka |first=Danko |date=2022 |title=The Geography of Words |url=https://assets.cambridge.org/97811088/41658/index/9781108841658_index.pdf |access-date=December 23, 2023 |website=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> and [[Limburgish]] (c. 1.3 million).{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

There are two extant major sub-divisions: ''[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]'' and ''[[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]]''. A third group, [[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]], is now extinct; the only known surviving East Germanic texts are written in the [[Gothic language]]. West Germanic is divided into [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]] (including [[English language|English]]), [[Low German]], [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]] (including [[Dutch language|Dutch]]) and [[High German]] (including [[Standard German]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Versloot |first1=Arjen |last2=Adamczyk |first2=Elzbieta |date=2017-01-01 |title=The Geography and Dialects of Old Saxon: River-basin communication networks and the distributional patterns of North Sea Germanic features in Old Saxon |url=https://www.academia.edu/19757571 |journal=Frisians and Their North Sea Neighbours |pages=125|doi=10.1515/9781787440630-014 }}</ref>

====Anglo-Frisian====
{{Main|Anglo-Frisian languages|English language in Europe}}

The [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian language family]] is now mostly represented by [[Anglic languages|English (Anglic)]], descended from the [[Old English language]] spoken by the [[Anglo-Saxons]]:

* [[English language|English]], the main language of the [[United Kingdom]] and the most widespread language in the [[Republic of Ireland]], also spoken as a [[European English|second or third language by many Europeans]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Evolution of English: Contribution of European Languages |url=https://www.98thpercentile.com/blog/the-evolution-of-english-contributions-of-european-languages/ |access-date=2023-12-16 |website=www.98thpercentile.com |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Scots language|Scots]], spoken in [[Scotland]] and [[Ulster]], recognized by some as a language and by others as a dialect of English<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-05 |title=Scots language {{!}} History, Examples, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Scots-language |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> (not to be confused with [[Scottish Gaelic|Scots-Gaelic]] of the [[#Others|Celtic language family]]).
The [[Frisian languages]] are spoken by about 400,000 ({{as of|2015|lc=y}}) [[Frisians]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Kuipers-Zandberg |first1=Helga |last2=Kircher |first2=Ruth |date=2020-11-01 |title=The Objective and Subjective Ethnolinguistic Vitality of West Frisian: Promotion and Perception of a Minority Language in the Netherlands |journal=Sustainable Multilingualism |language=en |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=1–25 |doi=10.2478/sm-2020-0011|s2cid=227129146 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Winter |first=Christoph |title=Frisian |date=2022-12-21 |url=https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-938 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics |access-date=2023-05-21 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.938 |isbn=978-0-19-938465-5|url-access=subscription }}</ref> who live on the southern coast of the [[North Sea]] in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Germany]]. These languages include [[West Frisian languages|West Frisian]], [[East Frisian language|East Frisian]] (of which the only surviving dialect is [[Saterlandic]]) and [[North Frisian language|North Frisian]].<ref name=":0" />

====Dutch====
{{Main|Dutch language#Europe{{!}}Dutch-speaking Europe|Dutch language|Low Franconian}}

[[Dutch language|Dutch]] is spoken throughout the [[Netherlands]], the northern half of [[Belgium]], as well as the [[Nord-Pas de Calais]] region of [[France]]. The traditional dialects of the [[Lower Rhine region|Lower Rhine]] region of Germany are linguistically more closely related to Dutch than to modern German. In Belgian and French contexts, Dutch is sometimes referred to as [[Flemish dialects|Flemish]]. [[Dutch dialects]] are numerous and varied.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-15 |title=Dutch language {{!}} Definition, Origin, History, Countries, Examples, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dutch-language |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

====German====
{{Main|German language|Geographical distribution of German speakers}}

[[German language|German]] is spoken throughout [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Liechtenstein]], much of [[Switzerland]], northern [[Italy]] ([[South Tyrol]]), [[Luxembourg]], the [[East Cantons of Belgium]] and the [[Alsace]] and [[Lorraine]] regions of [[France]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=German, Standard {{!}} Ethnologue Free |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/deu/ |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=Ethnologue (Free All) |language=en}}</ref>

There are several groups of German dialects:

* [[High German]] includes several dialect families:
** [[Standard German]]
** [[Central German]] dialects, spoken in central Germany and including [[Luxembourgish]]
** [[High Franconian]], a family of transitional dialects between Central and Upper High German
** [[Upper German]], including [[Bavarian language|Bavarian]] and [[Swiss German]]
** [[Yiddish]] is a [[Jewish languages|Jewish language]] developed in Germany and Eastern Europe. It shares many features of High German dialects and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Origins of Yiddish |url=https://sites.santafe.edu/~johnson/articles.yiddish.html |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=sites.santafe.edu}}</ref>


====[[Low German]]==== 
Low German is spoken in various regions throughout Northern Germany and the northern and eastern parts of the Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-28 |title=All You Need To Know About The Official Languages Of Germany |url=https://gtelocalize.com/about-the-official-languages-of-germany/#Looking-for-a-reliable-German-Translation-Service |access-date=2025-01-13 |website=gtelocalize.com |language=en-US}}</ref> It may be separated into [[West Low German]] and [[East Low German]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Russ |first=Charles |date=2013-09-13 |title=The Dialects of Modern German |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315001777 |doi=10.4324/9781315001777|isbn=9781315001777 }}</ref>

====North Germanic (Scandinavian)====
The ''[[North Germanic languages]]'' are spoken in [[Nordic countries]] and include 
[[Swedish language|Swedish]] ([[Sweden]] and parts of [[Finland]]), 
[[Danish language|Danish]] ([[Denmark]]), 
[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ([[Norway]]), 
[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] ([[Iceland]]),
[[Faroese language|Faroese]] ([[Faroe Islands]]), 
and [[Elfdalian]] (in a small part of central Sweden).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Louden |first1=Mark L. |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Germanic Linguistics |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-42186-7 |pages=807–832 |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108378291.035 |chapter=Minority Germanic Languages}}</ref>

English has a long history of contact with Scandinavian languages, given the immigration of Scandinavians early in the history of Britain, and shares various features with the Scandinavian languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/11/121127094111.htm|title=Linguist makes sensational claim: English is a Scandinavian language|website=ScienceDaily|access-date=2016-03-06}}</ref> Even so, especially Dutch and Swedish, but also Danish and Norwegian, have strong vocabulary connections to the [[German language]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-21 |title=Linguistic variety in the Nordics |url=https://nordics.info/show/artikel/linguistic-variety-in-the-nordic-region |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=nordics.info |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gooskens |first1=Charlotte |last2=Kürschner |first2=Sebastian |last3=Heuven |first3=Vincent J. van |date=August 4, 2021 |title=The role of loanwords in the intelligibility of written Danish among Swedes |journal=[[Nordic Journal of Linguistics]] |language=en |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=4–29 |doi=10.1017/S0332586521000111 |issn=0332-5865|doi-access=free |hdl=1887/3205273 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gooskens |first1=Charlotte |last2=van Heuven |first2=Vincent J. |last3=Golubović |first3=Jelena |last4=Schüppert |first4=Anja |last5=Swarte |first5=Femke |last6=Voigt |first6=Stefanie |date=2018-04-03 |title=Mutual intelligibility between closely related languages in Europe |journal=International Journal of Multilingualism |language=en |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=169–193 |doi=10.1080/14790718.2017.1350185 |issn=1479-0718|doi-access=free |hdl=1887/79190 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Romance ===
{{Further|Romance languages|Italic languages}}{{See also|Latins}}[[File:Romance 20c en.png|thumb|300px|Distribution of the Romance languages, 20th century]]

Roughly 215 million Europeans (primarily in [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Western Europe|Western]] Europe) are native speakers of [[Romance languages]], the largest groups including:{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

[[French language|French]] ({{circa}} 72 million),
[[Italian language|Italian]] ({{circa}} 65 million),
[[Spanish language|Spanish]] ({{circa}} 40 million), 
[[Romanian language|Romanian]] ({{circa}} 24 million),
[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ({{circa}} 10 million),
[[Catalan language|Catalan]] ({{circa}} 7 million),
[[Neapolitan language|Neapolitan]] ({{circa}} 6 million), 
[[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] ({{circa}} 5 million), 
[[Venetian language|Venetian]] ({{circa}} 4 million),
[[Galician language|Galician]] ({{circa}} 2 million),
[[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] ({{circa}} 1 million),<ref>{{cite book |author=Ti Alkire |title=Romance languages: a Historical Introduction |author2=Carol Rosen |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |location=New York |page=3}}</ref><ref name="Lubello">{{cite book |author=Sergio Lubello |title=Manuale Di Linguistica Italiana, Manuals of Romance linguistics |publisher=De Gruyter |year=2016 |page=499}}</ref><ref>This includes all of the varieties of Sardinian, written with any [[orthography]] (the [[Limba Sarda Comuna|LSC]], used for all of Sardinian, or the [[Logudorese Sardinian|Logudorese]], Nugorese and [[Campidanese Sardinian|Campidanese]] orthographies, only used for some dialects of it) but does not include [[Gallurese]] and [[Sassarese language|Sassarese]], that even though they have sometimes been included in a supposed Sardinian "macro-language" are actually considered by all Sardinian linguists two different transitional languages between Sardinian and [[Corsican language|Corsican]] (or, in the case of Gallurese, are sometimes classified as a variant of Corsican). For Gallurese: [http://maxia-mail.doomby.com/medias/files/atti-def-2015.compressed.pdf ATTI DEL II CONVEGNO INTERNAZIONALE DI STUDI Ciurrata di la Linga Gadduresa, 2014], for Sassarese: {{cite book |last=Maxia |first=Mauro |title=Studi sardo-corsi. Dialettologia e storia della lingua tra le due isole |year=2010 |location=Sassari |publisher=Taphros |page=58 |language=it |quote=La tesi che individua nel sassarese una base essenzialmente toscana deve essere riesaminata alla luce delle cospicue migrazioni corse che fin dall'età giudicale interessarono soprattutto il nord della Sardegna. In effetti, che il settentrione della Sardegna, almeno dalla metà del Quattrocento, fosse interessato da un forte presenza corsa si può desumere da diversi punti di osservazione. Una delle prove più evidenti è costituita dall'espressa citazione che di questo fenomeno fa il cap. 42 del secondo libro degli Statuti del comune di Sassari, il quale fu aggiunto nel 1435 o subito dopo. Se si tiene conto di questa massiccia presenza corsa e del fatto che la presenza pisana nel regno di Logudoro cessò definitivamente entro il Duecento, l'origine del fondo toscano non andrà attribuita a un influsso diretto del pisano antico ma del corso che rappresenta, esso stesso, una conseguenza dell'antica toscanizzazione della Corsica}}). They are legally considered two different languages by the Sardinian Regional Government too ({{cite web |author=Autonomous Region of Sardinia |date=1997-10-15 |title=Legge Regionale 15 ottobre 1997, n. 26 |url=http://www.regione.sardegna.it/j/v/86?v=9&c=72&s=1&file=1997026 |access-date=2008-06-16 |pages=Art. 2, paragraph 4 |language=it |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301195804/http://www.regione.sardegna.it/j/v/86?v=9&c=72&s=1&file=1997026 |url-status=dead }}).</ref>
[[Occitan language|Occitan]] ({{circa}} 500,000), besides numerous smaller communities.

The Romance languages evolved from varieties of [[Vulgar Latin]] spoken in the various parts of the [[Roman Empire]] in [[Late Antiquity]]. [[Latin]] was itself part of the (otherwise extinct) [[Italic languages|Italic]] branch of Indo-European.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-06 |title=Romance languages {{!}} Definition, Origin, Characteristics, Classification, Map, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Romance-languages |access-date=2025-02-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Romance languages are divided phylogenetically into ''[[Italo-Western]]'', ''[[Eastern Romance]]'' (including [[Romanian language|Romanian]]) and ''[[Sardinian language|Sardinian]]''. The Romance-speaking area of Europe is occasionally referred to as ''[[Latins#Latin peoples and regions|Latin Europe]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Friedman |first1=Lawrence |last2=Perez-Perdomo |first2=Rogelio |date=2003 |title=Legal Culture in the Age of Globalization: Latin America and Latin Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wEMUKyPTE9AC&q=%22latin+europe%22 |publisher=Stanford University Press |page=1 |isbn=0-8047-6695-9 |author-link1=Lawrence M. Friedman }}</ref>

Italo-Western can be further broken down into the ''[[Italo-Dalmatian languages]]'' (sometimes grouped with Eastern Romance), including the Tuscan-derived [[Italian language|Italian]] and numerous [[Languages of Italy|local Romance languages in Italy]] as well as [[Dalmatian language|Dalmatian]], and the ''[[Western Romance languages]]''. The Western Romance languages in turn separate into the [[Gallo-Romance languages]], including [[Langues d'oïl]] such as [[French language|French]], the Francoprovencalic languages [[Franco-Provençal|Arpitan]] and [[Faetar language|Faetar]], the [[Rhaeto-Romance languages]], and the [[Gallo-Italic languages]]; the [[Occitano-Romance languages]], grouped with either Gallo-Romance or East Iberian, including Occitanic languages such as [[Occitan language|Occitan]] and [[Vivaro-Alpine dialect|Gardiol]], and [[Catalan language|Catalan]]; [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]], grouped in with either Occitano-Romance or West Iberian, and finally the [[West Iberian languages]], including the [[Astur-Leonese languages]], the [[Galician-Portuguese|Galician-Portuguese languages]], and the [[Castilian languages]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

=== Slavic ===
{{See also|Slavic languages|Slavs}}

[[File:Slavic europe (Kosovo unshaded).svg|thumb|300px|Political map of Europe with countries where the national language is Slavic:
{{legend|#7cdc87|West Slavic languages}}
{{legend|#008000|East Slavic languages}}
{{legend|#004040|South Slavic languages}}]]

[[Slavic languages]] are spoken in large areas of Southern, Central and [[Eastern Europe]]. An estimated 315 million people speak a Slavic language,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-02 |title=Slavic languages {{!}} List, Definition, Origin, Map, Tree, History, & Number of Speakers {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Slavic-languages |access-date=2023-12-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> the largest groups being 
[[Russian language|Russian]] ({{circa}} 110 million in [[European Russia]] and adjacent parts of Eastern Europe, Russian forming the largest linguistic community in Europe),
[[Polish language|Polish]] ({{circa}} 40 million<ref>{{e27|pol|Polish}}</ref>),
[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] ({{circa}} 33 million<ref>{{e27|ukr|Ukrainian}}</ref>), 
[[Serbo-Croatian]] ({{circa}} 18 million<ref>{{e27|hbs|Serbo-Croatian}}</ref>),<!--includes Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Montenegrin-->
[[Czech language|Czech]] ({{circa}} 11 million<ref>{{e27|ces|Czech}}</ref>),
[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] ({{circa}} 8 million<ref>{{e27|bul|Bulgarian}}</ref>), 
[[Slovak language|Slovak]] ({{circa}} 5 million<ref>{{e27|slk|Slovak}}</ref>),
[[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] (c. 3.7 million<ref>{{e27|bel|Belarusian}}</ref>), [[Slovene language|Slovene]] ({{circa}} 2.3 million<ref>{{e27|slv|Slovene}}</ref>)
and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] ({{circa}} 1.6 million<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Macedonian-language |title=Macedonian Language |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=12 January 2024|website=Britannica |publisher= Encyclopaedia Britannica |access-date=24 March 2024 |quote=}}</ref>).

Phylogenetically, Slavic is divided into three subgroups:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Slavic {{!}} Ethnologue Free |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroup/4249/ |access-date=2023-12-22 |website=Ethnologue (Free All) |language=en}}</ref>

* ''[[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]]'' includes [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Polabian language|Polabian]], [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Knaanic language|Knaanic]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]], [[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]], [[Silesian language|Silesian]] and [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]].
* ''[[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]]'' includes [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]], and [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]].
* ''[[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]]'' includes [[Slovene language|Slovene]] and [[Serbo-Croatian]] in the southwest and [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] and [[Church Slavonic]] (a [[liturgical language]]) in the southeast, each with numerous distinctive dialects. South Slavic languages constitute a [[Dialect continuum#South Slavic continuum|dialect continuum]] where standard Slovene, Macedonian and Bulgarian are each based on a distinct dialect, whereas [[pluricentric language|pluricentric]] Serbo-Croatian boasts four [[mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] [[Comparison of standard Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian|national standard varieties]] all based on a single dialect, [[Shtokavian dialect|Shtokavian]].

=== Others ===
* [[Greek language|Greek]] ({{circa}} 13 million) is the official language of [[Greece]] and [[Cyprus]], and there are Greek-speaking enclaves in [[Albania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Italy]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Romania]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Lebanon]], [[Egypt]], [[Israel]], [[Jordan]], and [[Turkey]], and in [[Greek diaspora|Greek communities]] around the world. Dialects of modern Greek that originate from [[Attic Greek]] (through [[Koine Greek|Koine]] and then [[Medieval Greek]]) are [[Cappadocian Greek|Cappadocian]], [[Pontic Greek|Pontic]], [[Cretan Greek|Cretan]], [[Cypriot Greek|Cypriot]], [[Katharevousa]], and [[Yevanic]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}
** [[Greek-Bovesian|Italiot Greek]] is, debatably, a [[Doric Greek|Doric]] dialect of Greek. It is spoken in southern Italy only, in the [[Province of Reggio Calabria|southern Calabria]] region (as [[Greek-Bovesian|Grecanic]])<ref>F. Violi, ''Lessico Grecanico-Italiano-Grecanico'', Apodiafàzzi, [[Reggio Calabria]], 1997.</ref><ref>Paolo Martino, ''L'isola grecanica dell'Aspromonte. Aspetti sociolinguistici'', 1980. Risultati di un'inchiesta del 1977</ref><ref>Filippo Violi, ''Storia degli studi e della letteratura popolare grecanica'', C.S.E. Bova ([[Province of Reggio Calabria|RC]]), 1992</ref><ref>Filippo Condemi, ''Grammatica Grecanica'', Coop. Contezza, [[Reggio Calabria]], 1987;</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.treccani.it/magazine/lingua_italiana/speciali/minoranze/Romano.html|title=In Salento e Calabria le voci della minoranza linguistica greca|website=Treccani, l'Enciclopedia italiana}}</ref> and in the [[Salento]] region (as [[Griko]]). It was studied by the German linguist [[Gerhard Rohlfs]] during the 1930s and 1950s.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Gerhard Rohlfs |author2=Salvatore Sicuro |title=Grammatica storica dei dialetti italogreci |url=https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130000797628384384 |journal=(No Title) |access-date=8 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240420152930/https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130000797628384384 |archive-date=20 April 2024 |language=it |url-status=live}}</ref>
** [[Tsakonian language|Tsakonian]] is a Doric dialect of the Greek language spoken in the lower [[Arcadia (regional unit)|Arcadia]] region of the [[Peloponnese]] around the village of [[Leonidio]]<ref name="Dansby 2020 f130">{{cite web | last=Dansby | first=Angela | title=The last speakers of ancient Sparta | website=BBC Home | date=December 16, 2020 | url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20201215-the-last-speakers-of-ancient-sparta | access-date=February 6, 2024}}</ref>
 
[[File:Baltic languages.png|thumb|200px|Historic distribution of the Baltic languages in the Baltic (simplified)]]

* The [[Baltic languages]] are spoken in [[Lithuania]] ([[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] ({{circa}} 3 million), [[Samogitian language|Samogitian]]) and [[Latvia]] ([[Latvian language|Latvian]] ({{circa}} 1.5 million), [[Latgalian language|Latgalian]]). Samogitian and Latgalian used to be considered dialects of Lithuanian and Latvian respectively.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}
** There are also several extinct Baltic languages, including: [[Curonian language|Curonian]],<ref name="Pronk_2017">{{cite book |last=Pronk |first=Tijmen |date=2017 |title=USQUE AD RADICES Indo-European studies in honour of Birgit Anette Olsen: Curonian accentuation |url=https://www.academia.edu/35480576 |location=Copenhagen, Denmark  |publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press |page=659 |isbn=9788763545761}}</ref><ref name="Vaba_2014">{{cite journal |last1=Vaba |first1=Lembit |date=July 2014 |title=Curonian linguistic elements in Livonian |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286371765 |journal=Eesti ja Soome-Ugri Keeleteaduse Ajakiri |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=173–191 |doi=10.12697/jeful.2014.5.1.09 |access-date=2024-02-18|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Galindian language|Galindian]],  [[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]],<ref name="Nomachi_2019">{{cite journal |last1=Nomachi |first1=Motoki |date=2019 |title=Placing Kashubian in the Circum-Baltic (CB) area |url=https://www.journals.polon.uw.edu.pl/index.php/pf/article/view/470 |journal=Prace Filologiczne |volume=LXXIV |issue=2019 |pages=315–328 |doi=10.32798/pf.470 |access-date=2024-02-18|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Selonian language|Selonian]], [[Semigallian language|Semigallian]],<ref name="Mažiulis 1999 w528">{{cite web | last=Mažiulis | first=Vytautas J. | title=Baltic Languages | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=July 26, 1999 | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Baltic-languages | access-date=February 18, 2024}}</ref> and [[Sudovian language|Sudovian]].<ref name="Szatkowski_2022">{{cite journal |last1=Szatkowski |first1=Piotr |date=January 2022 |title=Language Practices in a Family of Prussian Language Revivalists: Conclusions Based on Short-Term Participant Observation |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358448619 |journal=Adeptus |issue=2626 |pages=173 |doi=10.11649/a.2626 |access-date=2024-02-18|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Albanian language|Albanian]] ({{circa}} 7.5 million) has two major dialects, [[Tosk Albanian]] and [[Gheg Albanian]]. It is spoken in [[Albania]] and [[Kosovo]], neighboring [[North Macedonia]], [[Serbia]], [[Italy]], and [[Montenegro]]. It is also widely spoken in the [[Albanian diaspora]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Çerpja |first1=Adelina |last2=Çepani |first2=Anila |date=December 2023 |title=Albanian Dialect Classifications |url=https://www.edicions.ub.edu/revistes/dialectologiaSP2023/documentos/1938.pdf |journal=Dialectologia |volume=11 |issue=2023 |pages=51–87 |doi=10.1344/dialectologia2023.2023.3 |access-date=8 March 2025}}</ref>
* [[Armenian language|Armenian]] ({{circa}} 7 million) has two major forms, [[Western Armenian]] and [[Eastern Armenian]]. It is spoken in [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] ([[Samtskhe-Javakheti]]) and [[Abkhazia]], also [[Russia]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Turkey]], [[Greece]], and [[Cyprus]]. It is also widely spoken in the [[Armenian Diaspora]]. {{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}
* There are six living [[Celtic languages]], spoken in areas of northwestern Europe dubbed the "[[Celtic nations]]". All six are members of the [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]] family, which in turn is divided into:
** [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic family]]: [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ([[Wales]], {{circa}} 462,000<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welsh {{!}} Ethnologue Free |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/cym/ |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=Ethnologue (Free All) |language=en}}</ref>), [[Cornish language|Cornish]] ([[Cornwall]], {{circa}} 500<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cornish {{!}} Ethnologue Free |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/cor/ |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=Ethnologue (Free All) |language=en}}</ref>) and [[Breton language|Breton]] ([[Brittany]], {{circa}} 206,000<ref>{{Cite web |title=Breton {{!}} Ethnologue Free |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bre/ |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=Ethnologue (Free All) |language=en}}</ref>)
** [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic family]]: [[Irish language|Irish]] ([[Ireland]], {{circa}} 1.7 million<ref>{{Cite web |title=Irish {{!}} Ethnologue Free |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gle/ |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=Ethnologue (Free All) |language=en}}</ref>), [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] ([[Scotland]], {{circa}} 57,400<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scottish Gaelic {{!}} Ethnologue Free |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gla/ |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=Ethnologue (Free All) |language=en}}</ref>), and [[Manx language|Manx]] ([[Isle of Man]], 1,660<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manx {{!}} Ethnologue Free |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/glv/ |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=Ethnologue (Free All) |language=en}}</ref>)
: [[Continental Celtic languages]] had previously been spoken across Europe from Iberia and Gaul to Asia Minor, but became extinct in the first millennium CE.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic |url=https://www.asnc.cam.ac.uk/spokenword/texts_cc.php |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=www.asnc.cam.ac.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-22 |title=Celtic languages {{!}} History, Features, Origin, Map, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celtic-languages |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
* The [[Indo-Aryan languages]] have one major representative: [[Romani language|Romani]] ({{circa}} 4.6 million speakers<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=ROMANI IN EUROPE |vauthors=Zatreanu M, Halwachs DW |url=https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/roma/source/romanieurope_en.pdf |publisher=The Council of Europe}}</ref>), introduced in Europe during the late medieval period. Lacking a nation state, Romani is spoken as a minority language throughout Europe.<ref name=":3" />
* The [[Iranian languages]] in Europe are natively represented in the North Caucasus, notably with [[Ossetic language|Ossetian]] ({{circa}} 600,000).{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}