Editing Learning (section)

== Types ==
There are various functional categorizations of memory which have developed. Some memory researchers distinguish memory based on the relationship between the stimuli involved (associative vs non-associative) or based to whether the content can be communicated through language (declarative/explicit vs procedural/implicit). Some of these categories can, in turn, be parsed into sub-types. For instance, [[declarative memory]] comprises both [[Episodic memory|episodic]] and [[Semantic memory|semantic]] memory.
[[File:Children competition on side wheels in the eighties in Czechoslovakia.jpg|thumb|Children learn to bike in the eighties in Czechoslovakia.]]

=== Non-associative learning ===
''Non-associative learning'' refers to "a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fuentes|first=Agustín|title=The International Encyclopedia of Primatology, 3 Volume Set|date=2017|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|isbn=978-0-470-67337-9|location=Malden, MA|pages=712}}</ref> This definition exempts the changes caused by [[sensory adaptation]], [[fatigue]], or injury.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/314/Non-associativeLearning.pdf |title=Non-associative Learning |access-date=2013-08-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103191805/http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/314/Non-associativeLearning.pdf |archive-date=2014-01-03 }}</ref>

Non-associative learning can be divided into [[habituation]] and [[sensitization]].

==== Habituation ====
{{Main|Habituation}}
''Habituation'' is an example of non-associative learning in which one or more components of an innate response (e.g., response probability, response duration) to a stimulus diminishes when the stimulus is repeated. Thus, habituation must be distinguished from [[Extinction (psychology)|extinction]], which is an associative process. In operant extinction, for example, a response declines because it is no longer followed by a reward. An example of habituation can be seen in small song birds—if a stuffed [[owl]] (or similar [[predator]]) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). The habituation process is faster for stimuli that occur at a high rather than for stimuli that occur at a low rate as well as for the weak and strong stimuli, respectively.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Science of Learning|last=Pear|first=Joseph|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-317-76280-5|location=London|page=15}}</ref> Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, as well as the sensitive plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]''<ref name="gagliano2014">{{cite journal | last1 = Gagliano | first1 = M. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = Experience teaches plants to learn faster and forget slower in environments where it matters | journal = Oecologia | volume = 175 | issue = 1| pages = 63–72 | doi=10.1007/s00442-013-2873-7| pmid = 24390479 | bibcode = 2014Oecol.175...63G | s2cid = 5038227 }}</ref> and the large protozoan ''[[Stentor coeruleus]]''.<ref name="wood1988">{{cite journal | last1 = Wood | first1 = D.C. | year = 1988 | title = Habituation in ''Stentor'' produced by mechanoreceptor channel modification | pmid = 3249223 | journal = Journal of Neuroscience | issue = 7| volume = 8 | pages = 2254–8 | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.08-07-02254.1988 | pmc = 6569508 }}</ref> This concept acts in direct opposition to sensitization.<ref name=":0" />

==== Sensitization ====
{{Main|Sensitization}}
''Sensitization'' is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a [[stimulation|stimulus]].<ref>Shettleworth, S. J. (2010). Cognition, Evolution, and Behavior (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford.</ref> This is based on the notion that a defensive reflex to a stimulus such as withdrawal or escape becomes stronger after the exposure to a different harmful or threatening stimulus.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Neurosciences – From Molecule to Behavior|last1=Galizia|first1=Giovanni|last2=Lledo|first2=Pierre-Marie|publisher=Springer Spektrum|year=2013|isbn=978-3-642-10768-9|location=Heidelberg|page=578}}</ref> An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that occurs if a person rubs their arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation creates a warm sensation that can eventually turn painful. This pain results from a progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves. This sends a warning that the stimulation is harmful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woolf|first=Clifford J.|date=2018-02-27|title=Pain amplification-A perspective on the how, why, when, and where of central sensitization|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jabr.12124|journal=Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research|volume=23|issue=2|pages=e12124|doi=10.1111/jabr.12124|issn=1071-2089|url-access=subscription}}</ref>{{clarify|date=January 2011}} Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bonne|first1=Omer|last2=Grillon|first2=Christian|last3=Vythilingam|first3=Meena|last4=Neumeister|first4=Alexander|last5=Charney|first5=Dennis S|date=March 2004|title=Adaptive and maladaptive psychobiological responses to severe psychological stress: implications for the discovery of novel pharmacotherapy|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2003.12.001|journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews|volume=28|issue=1|pages=65–94|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2003.12.001|pmid=15036934 |s2cid=23745725 |issn=0149-7634|url-access=subscription}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}

=== Active learning ===
{{main|Active learning}}

''Active learning'' occurs when a person takes control of their learning experience. Since understanding information is the key aspect of learning, it is important for learners to recognize what they understand and what they do not. By doing so, they can monitor their own mastery of subjects. Active learning encourages learners to have an internal dialogue in which they verbalize understandings. This and other meta-cognitive strategies can be taught to a child over time. Studies within [[metacognition]] have proven the value in active learning, claiming that the learning is usually at a stronger level as a result.<ref>Bransford, 2000, pp. 15–20</ref> In addition, learners have more incentive to learn when they have control over not only how they learn but also what they learn.<ref>{{cite journal| url = https://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/files/?whdmsaction=public:main.file&fileID=8113| title = Natural Learning in Higher Education| author = J. Scott Armstrong| journal = Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning| year = 2012|url-status = live| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140916150012/https://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/files/?whdmsaction=public:main.file&fileID=8113| archive-date = 2014-09-16}}</ref> Active learning is a key characteristic of [[student-centered learning]]. Conversely, [[passive learning]] and [[direct instruction]] are characteristics of teacher-centered learning (or [[traditional education]]).

=== Associative learning ===
''Associative learning'' is the process by which a person or animal learns an [[association (psychology)|association]] between two stimuli or events.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Discovery Series: Introduction to Psychology|last1=Plotnik|first1=Rod|last2=Kouyomdijan|first2=Haig|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|year=2012|isbn=978-1-111-34702-4|location=Belmont, CA|page=208}}</ref> In [[classical conditioning]], a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a reflex-eliciting stimulus until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits a response on its own. In operant conditioning, a behavior that is reinforced or punished in the presence of a stimulus becomes more or less likely to occur in the presence of that stimulus.

==== Operant conditioning ====
{{Main|Operant conditioning}}
''Operant conditioning'' is a way in which behavior can be shaped or modified according to the desires of the trainer or head individual. Operant conditioning uses the thought that living things seek pleasure and avoid pain, and that an animal or human can learn through receiving either reward or punishment at a specific time called trace conditioning. Trace conditioning is the small and ideal period of time between the subject performing the desired behavior, and receiving the positive reinforcement as a result of their performance. The reward needs to be given immediately after the completion of the wanted behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bangasser |first1=Debra A. |last2=Waxler |first2=David E. |last3=Santollo |first3=Jessica |last4=Shors |first4=Tracey J. |date=2006-08-23 |title=Trace Conditioning and the Hippocampus: The Importance of Contiguity |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=26 |issue=34 |pages=8702–8706 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1742-06.2006 |issn=0270-6474 |pmc=3289537 |pmid=16928858}}</ref>

Operant conditioning is different from classical conditioning in that it shapes behavior not solely on bodily reflexes that occur naturally to a specific stimulus, but rather focuses on the shaping of wanted behavior that requires conscious thought, and ultimately requires learning.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reflex Definition & Meaning {{!}} Britannica Dictionary |url=https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/reflex |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

Punishment and reinforcement are the two principal ways in which operant conditioning occurs. Punishment is used to reduce unwanted behavior, and ultimately (from the learner's perspective) leads to avoidance of the punishment, not necessarily avoidance of the unwanted behavior. Punishment is not an appropriate way to increase wanted behavior for animals or humans. Punishment can be divided into two subcategories, positive punishment and negative punishment. Positive punishment is when an aversive aspect of life or thing is added to the subject, for this reason it is called positive punishment. For example, the parent spanking their child would be considered a positive punishment, because a spanking was added to the child. Negative punishment is considered the removal of something loved or desirable from the subject. For example, when a parent puts his child in time out, in reality, the child is losing the opportunity to be with friends, or to enjoy the freedom to do as he pleases. In this example, negative punishment is the removal of the child's desired rights to play with his friends etc.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Pryor |first=Karen |title=Don't Shoot the Dog: The New Art of Teaching and Training |date=1999-08-03 |publisher=Bantam |isbn=978-0-553-38039-2 |edition=Revised |location=New York |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last1=Chance |first1=Paul |url= |title=Learning and Behavior: Active Learning Edition |last2=Furlong |first2=Ellen |date=2022-03-16 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-357-65811-6 |edition=8th |location=Boston, MA |language=English}}</ref>

Reinforcement on the other hand is used to increase a wanted behavior either through negative reinforcement or positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is defined by removing an undesirable aspect of life, or thing. For example, a dog might learn to sit as the trainer scratches his ears, which ultimately is removing his itches (undesirable aspect). Positive reinforcement is defined by adding a desirable aspect of life or thing. For example, a dog might learn to sit if he receives a treat. In this example the treat was added to the dog's life.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" />

==== Classical conditioning ====
{{Main|Classical conditioning}}
The typical paradigm for ''classical conditioning'' involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a ''conditioned response''. The classic example is [[Ivan Pavlov]] and his dogs.<ref name=":1" /> Pavlov fed his dogs meat powder, which naturally made the dogs salivate—salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous pairings of bell and food, the dogs learned that the bell signaled that food was about to come, and began to salivate when they heard the bell. Once this occurred, the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell became the conditioned response (CR). Classical conditioning has been demonstrated in many species. For example, it is seen in honeybees, in the [[proboscis extension reflex]] paradigm.<ref name="bitterman">{{cite journal | last1 = Bitterman | display-authors = etal | year = 1983 | title = Classical Conditioning of Proboscis Extension in Honeybees (''Apis mellifera'') | journal = J. Comp. Psychol. | volume = 97 | issue = 2| pages = 107–119 | doi=10.1037/0735-7036.97.2.107| pmid = 6872507 }}</ref> It was recently also demonstrated in garden pea plants.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Gagliano|first1=Monica|last2=Vyazovskiy|first2=Vladyslav V.|last3=Borbély|first3=Alexander A.|last4=Grimonprez|first4=Mavra|last5=Depczynski|first5=Martial|date=2016-12-02|title=Learning by Association in Plants|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|page=38427|doi=10.1038/srep38427|issn=2045-2322|pmc=5133544|pmid=27910933|bibcode=2016NatSR...638427G}}</ref>

Another influential person in the world of classical conditioning is [[John B. Watson]]. Watson's work was very influential and paved the way for [[B.F. Skinner]]'s radical behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism (and philosophy of science) stood in direct contrast to Freud and other accounts based largely on introspection. Watson's view was that the introspective method was too subjective and that we should limit the study of human development to directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views", in which he argued that laboratory studies should serve psychology best as a science. Watson's most famous, and controversial, experiment was "[[Little Albert]]", where he demonstrated how psychologists can account for the learning of emotion through classical conditioning principles.

==== Observational learning ====
{{Main|Observational learning}}
''Observational learning'' is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher with surroundings.

==== Imprinting ====
{{Main|Imprinting (psychology)}}
''Imprinting'' is a kind of learning occurring at a particular life stage that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. In filial imprinting, young animals, particularly birds, form an association with another individual or in some cases, an object, that they respond to as they would to a parent. In 1935, the Austrian Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds follow and form a bond if the object makes sounds.

=== Play ===
{{Main|Play (activity)}}
''Play'' generally describes behavior with no particular end in itself, but that improves performance in similar future situations. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to [[mammal]]s and [[bird]]s. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other animals, such as [[orca]]s playing with seals they have caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to [[predator]]s and the risk of [[injury]] and possibly [[infection]]. It also consumes [[energy]], so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving [[physical fitness]].

Play, as it pertains to humans as a form of learning is central to a child's learning and development. Through play, children learn social skills such as sharing and collaboration. Children develop emotional skills such as learning to deal with the emotion of anger, through play activities. As a form of learning, play also facilitates the development of thinking and language skills in children.<ref name="Lillemyr, O.F. 2009">Lillemyr, O.F. (2009). Taking play seriously. Children and play in early childhood education: an exciting challenge. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.</ref>

There are five types of play:
# Sensorimotor play aka functional play, characterized by the repetition of an activity
# Roleplay occurs starting at the age of three
# Rule-based play where authoritative prescribed codes of conduct are primary
# Construction play involves experimentation and building
# Movement play aka physical play<ref name="Lillemyr, O.F. 2009"/>

These five types of play are often intersecting. All types of play generate thinking and [[problem-solving]] skills in children. Children learn to think creatively when they learn through play.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Whitebread | first1 = D. | last2 = Coltman | first2 = P. | last3 = Jameson | first3 = H. | last4 = Lander | first4 = R. | year = 2009 | title = Play, cognition and self-regulation: What exactly are children learning when they learn through play? | url =https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232442434 | journal = Educational and Child Psychology | volume = 26 | issue = 2| pages = 40–52 | doi = 10.53841/bpsecp.2009.26.2.40 | s2cid = 150255306 }}</ref> Specific activities involved in each type of play change over time as humans progress through the lifespan. Play as a form of learning, can occur solitarily, or involve interacting with others.

=== Enculturation ===
{{Main|Enculturation}}
''Enculturation'' is the process by which people learn values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in their surrounding [[culture]].<ref name="GrusecHastings">Grusec, Joan E.; Hastings, Paul D. "Handbook of Socialization: Theory and Research", 2007, Guilford Press; {{ISBN|1-59385-332-7|978-1-59385-332-7}}; at p. 547.</ref> Parents, other adults, and peers shape the individual's understanding of these values.<ref name="GrusecHastings"/> If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values, and rituals of the culture.<ref name="GrusecHastings"/> This is different from [[acculturation]], where a person adopts the values and societal rules of a culture different from their native one.

Multiple examples of enculturation can be found cross-culturally. Collaborative practices in the Mazahua people have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities contributed to enculturation rooted in nonverbal social experience.<ref name="Paradise1994">{{cite journal|last1=Paradise|first1=Ruth|title=Interactional Style and Nonverbal Meaning: Mazahua Children Learning How to Be Separate-But-Together|journal=Anthropology & Education Quarterly|date=1994|doi=10.1525/aeq.1994.25.2.05x0907w|volume=25|issue=2|pages=156–172|s2cid=146505048 }}</ref> As the children participated in everyday activities, they learned the cultural significance of these interactions. The collaborative and helpful behaviors exhibited by Mexican and Mexican-heritage children is a cultural practice known as being "acomedido".<ref name=Lopez2012>{{cite journal|last1=Lopez|first1=Angelica|last2=Najafi|first2=Behnosh|last3=Rogoff|first3=Barbara|last4=Mejia-Arauz|first4=Rebeca|title=Collaboration and helping as cultural practices|journal=The Oxford Handbook of Culture and Psychology|date=2012}}</ref> Chillihuani girls in Peru described themselves as weaving constantly, following behavior shown by the other adults.<ref name=Bolin>{{cite book|last1=Bolin|first1=Inge|title=Growing Up in a Culture of Respect: Childrearing in highland Peru|date=2006|publisher=University of Texas|location=Austin|isbn=978-0-292-71298-0|pages=90–99|edition=2}}</ref>

=== Episodic learning ===
''Episodic learning'' is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event.<ref>Terry, W.S. (2006). Learning and Memory: Basic principles, processes, and procedures. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.</ref> For example, a fear of dogs that follows being bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named because events are recorded into [[episodic memory]], which is one of the three forms of explicit learning and retrieval, along with perceptual memory and [[semantic memory]].<ref>Baars, B.J. & Gage, N.M. (2007). Cognition, Brain, and Consciousness: Introduction to cognitive neuroscience. London: Elsevier Ltd.</ref> Episodic memory remembers events and history that are embedded in experience and this is distinguished from semantic memory, which attempts to extract facts out of their experiential context<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sixth International Conference on Cognitive Modeling: ICCM – 2004|last1=Lovett|first1=Marsha|last2=Schunn|first2=Christian|last3=Lebiere|first3=Christian|last4=Munro|first4=Paul|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8058-5426-8|location=Mahwah, NJ|page=220}}</ref> or – as some describe – a timeless organization of knowledge.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Artificial Intelligence: Critical Concepts, Volume 1|last1=Chrisley|first1=Ronald|last2=Begeer|first2=Sander|publisher=Routledge|year=2000|isbn=978-0-415-19332-0|location=London|page=48}}</ref> For instance, if a person remembers the [[Grand Canyon National Park|Grand Canyon]] from a recent visit, it is an episodic memory. He would use semantic memory to answer someone who would ask him information such as where the Grand Canyon is. A study revealed that humans are very accurate in the recognition of episodic memory even without deliberate intention to memorize it.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Fundamentals of Cognitive Neuroscience: A Beginner's Guide|last1=Gage|first1=Nicole|last2=Baars|first2=Bernard|publisher=Academic Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0-12-803813-0|location=London|page=219}}</ref> This is said to indicate a very large storage capacity of the brain for things that people pay attention to.<ref name=":2" />

=== Multimedia learning ===
{{Main|Multimedia learning}}
''Multimedia learning'' is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information.<ref>{{Harv|Mayer|2001}}</ref> This type of learning relies on [[dual-coding theory]].<ref>{{Harv|Paivio|1971}}</ref>

=== E-learning and augmented learning ===
{{Main|Electronic learning}}
''Electronic learning'' or e-learning is computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning is [[mobile learning]] (m-learning), which uses different mobile telecommunication equipment, such as [[cellular phone]]s.

When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it is called [[augmented learning]]. By adapting to the needs of individuals, the context-driven instruction can be dynamically tailored to the learner's natural environment. Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, audio (music and voice). By personalizing instruction, augmented learning has been shown to improve learning performance for a lifetime.<ref name="Augmented Learning">[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1156186 Augmented Learning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313071206/https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.5555/1156068.1156186 |date=2020-03-13 }}, Augmented Learning: Context-Aware Mobile Augmented Reality Architecture for Learning</ref> See also [[minimally invasive education]].

Moore (1989)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Moore | first1 = M | year = 1989 | title = Three types of interaction | journal = American Journal of Distance Education | volume = 3 | issue = 2| pages = 1–6 | doi=10.1080/08923648909526659| citeseerx = 10.1.1.491.4800 }}</ref> purported that three core types of interaction are necessary for quality, effective online learning:
* Learner–learner (i.e. communication between and among peers with or without the teacher present),
* Learner–instructor (i.e. student-teacher communication), and
* Learner–content (i.e. intellectually interacting with content that results in changes in learners' understanding, perceptions, and cognitive structures).
In his theory of transactional distance, Moore (1993)<ref>Moore, M.G. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed.), Theoretical principles of distance education (pp. 22–38). London and New York: Routledge</ref> contented that structure and interaction or dialogue bridge the gap in understanding and communication that is created by geographical distances (known as transactional distance).

=== Rote learning ===
{{Main|Rote learning}}
''Rote learning'' is [[memorizing]] information so that it can be [[recollection|recalled]] by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major technique used for rote learning is ''learning by repetition'', based on the idea that a learner can recall the material exactly (but not its meaning) if the information is repeatedly processed. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion.

=== Meaningful learning ===
{{See also|Deeper learning}}
''[[Meaningful learning]]'' is the concept that learned knowledge (e.g., a fact) is fully understood to the extent that it relates to other knowledge. To this end, meaningful learning contrasts with [[rote learning]] in which information is acquired without regard to understanding. Meaningful learning, on the other hand, implies there is a comprehensive knowledge of the context of the facts learned.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hassard|first=Jack|title=Backup of Meaningful Learning Model|url=http://www.csudh.edu/dearhabermas/advorgbk02.htm|access-date=30 November 2011|url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029042955/http://www.csudh.edu/dearhabermas/advorgbk02.htm|archive-date=29 October 2011}}</ref>

===Evidence-based learning===
{{Main|Evidence-based learning}}
Evidence-based learning is the use of evidence from well designed scientific studies to accelerate learning. Evidence-based learning methods such as [[spaced repetition]] can increase the rate at which a student learns.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smolen |first1=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Yili |last3=Byrne |first3=John H. |title=The right time to learn: mechanisms and optimization of spaced learning |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |date=25 January 2016 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=77–88 |doi=10.1038/nrn.2015.18 |pmid=26806627 |arxiv=1606.08370 |bibcode=2016arXiv160608370S |pmc=5126970}}</ref>

=== Formal learning ===
{{Main|Education}}
[[Image:Laurentius de Voltolina Vorlesung vor Studenten - Min 1233 - Kupferstichkabinett Berlin.jpg|right|thumb|A depiction of the world's oldest continually operating university, the [[University of Bologna]], Italy]]
''Formal learning'' is a deliberate way attaining of knowledge, which takes place within a teacher-student environment, such as in a school system or work environment.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=2014-10-15 |title=What is the difference between "informal" and "non formal" learning? |url=http://www.competencecentre.eu/index.php/home/74-what-is-the-difference-between-qinformalq-and-qnon-formalq-learning |access-date=2023-05-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015103040/http://www.competencecentre.eu/index.php/home/74-what-is-the-difference-between-qinformalq-and-qnon-formalq-learning |archive-date=2014-10-15 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Glossary |url=https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/vet-glossary/glossary |access-date=2023-06-24 |website=CEDEFOP |language=en}}</ref> The term formal learning has nothing to do with the formality of the learning, but rather the way it is directed and organized. In formal learning, the learning or training departments set out the goals and objectives of the learning and oftentimes learners will be awarded with a diploma, or a type of formal recognition.<ref name=":5" /><ref>Bell, J., and Dale, M., [http://www.knowledgejump.com/learning/informal.html " Informal Learning in the Workplace"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121140538/http://www.knowledgejump.com/learning/informal.html|date=2013-01-21}}, '' Department for Education and Employment Research Report No. 134. London, England: Department for Education and Employment'', August 1999</ref>

=== Non-formal learning ===
{{Main|Nonformal learning}}
''Non-formal learning'' is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example, learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, and workshops. From the organizer's point of reference, non-formal learning does not always need a main objective or learning outcome. From the learner's point of view, non-formal learning, although not focused on outcomes, often results in an intentional learning opportunity.<ref name="competencecentre.eu">{{Cite web |date=2014-10-16 |title=What is the difference between "informal" and "non formal" learning? |url=http://www.competencecentre.eu/index.php/home/74-what-is-the-difference-between-qinformalq-and-qnon-formalq-learning |access-date=2023-06-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016214554/http://www.competencecentre.eu/index.php/home/74-what-is-the-difference-between-qinformalq-and-qnon-formalq-learning |archive-date=2014-10-16 }}</ref>

=== Informal learning ===
{{Main|Informal learning}}
''Informal learning'' is less structured than "non-formal learning". It may occur through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the possible dangers inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at the table with parents, during [[play (activity)|play]], and while exploring etc.. For the learner, informal learning is most often an experience of happenstance, and not a deliberately planned experience. Thus this does not require enrollment into any class. Unlike formal learning, informal learning typically does not lead to accreditation.<ref name="competencecentre.eu"/> Informal learning begins to unfold as the learner ponders his or her situation. This type of learning does not require a professor of any kind, and learning outcomes are unforeseen following the learning experience.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kyndt |first1=Eva |last2=Baert |first2=Herman |date=June 2013 |title=Antecedents of Employees' Involvement in Work-Related Learning: A Systematic Review |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3102/0034654313478021 |journal=Review of Educational Research |language=en |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=273–313 |doi=10.3102/0034654313478021 |s2cid=145446612 |issn=0034-6543|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Informal learning is self-directed and because it focuses on day-to-day situations, the value of informal learning can be considered high. As a result, information retrieved from informal learning experiences will likely be applicable to daily life.<ref name=":6" /> Children with informal learning can at times yield stronger support than subjects with formal learning in the topic of mathematics.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Dunst |first1=Carl J. |title=Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Home and Family Experiences and Young Children's Early Numeracy Learning |date=2017 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-10-2553-2_7 |work=Engaging Families as Children's First Mathematics Educators |pages=105–125 |editor-last=Phillipson |editor-first=Sivanes |access-date=2023-06-29 |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer Singapore |doi=10.1007/978-981-10-2553-2_7 |isbn=978-981-10-2551-8 |last2=Hamby |first2=Deborah W. |last3=Wilkie |first3=Helen |last4=Dunst |first4=Kerran Scott |series=Early Mathematics Learning and Development |editor2-last=Gervasoni |editor2-first=Ann |editor3-last=Sullivan |editor3-first=Peter|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Daily life experiences take place in the workforce, family life, and any other situation that may arise during one's lifetime. Informal learning is voluntary from the learner's viewpoint, and may require making mistakes and learning from them. Informal learning allows the individual to discover coping strategies for difficult emotions that may arise while learning. From the learner's perspective, informal learning can become purposeful, because the learner chooses which rate is appropriate to learn and because this type of learning tends to take place within smaller groups or by oneself.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Decius |first1=Julian |last2=Schaper |first2=Niclas |last3=Seifert |first3=Andreas |date=December 2019 |title=Informal workplace learning: Development and validation of a measure |journal=Human Resource Development Quarterly |language=en |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=495–535 |doi=10.1002/hrdq.21368 |s2cid=201376378 |issn=1044-8004|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Nonformal learning and combined approaches ===
The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and nonformal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools, students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share, and can prove this offered valuable new insight, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, [[teaching]], etc.

To learn a skill, such as solving a [[Rubik's Cube]] quickly, several factors come into play at once:
* Reading directions helps a player learn the patterns that solve the Rubik's Cube.
* Practicing the moves repeatedly helps build "[[muscle memory]]" and speed.
* Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which speeds future attempts.
* Observing the Rubik's Cube's six colors help anchor solutions in the mind.
* Revisiting the cube occasionally helps retain the skill.

=== Tangential learning ===
''Tangential learning'' is the process by which people [[self-education|self-educate]] if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they already enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people may be motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show that references Faust and Lovecraft, some people may be inspired to read the original work.<ref>Tangential Learning {{cite web |url=http://penny-arcade.com/patv/episode/tangential-learning |title=Penny Arcade – PATV – Tangential Learning |access-date=2012-01-31 |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104053746/http://penny-arcade.com/patv/episode/tangential-learning |archive-date=2012-01-04 }}</ref> Self-education can be improved with systematization. According to experts in natural learning, self-oriented learning training has proven an effective tool for assisting independent learners with the natural phases of learning.<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=marketing_papers | title = The Natural Learning Project | author = J. Scott Armstrong | journal = Journal of Experiential Learning and Simulation | volume = 1 | pages = 5–12 | year = 1979 |url-status = live| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141019092456/http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=marketing_papers | archive-date = 2014-10-19 }}</ref>

''[[Extra Credits]]'' writer and game designer James Portnow was the first to suggest games as a potential venue for "tangential learning".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robert|first=Rath|date=2015-01-22|title=Game Criticism as Tangential Learning Facilitator: The Case of Critical Intel|url=http://gamescriticism.org/articles/rath-2-1/|journal=Journal of Games Criticism|language=en-US|volume=2|issue=1|access-date=2018-06-08|archive-date=2023-04-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419044808/http://gamescriticism.org/articles/rath-2-1/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mozelius ''et al.''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mozelius |display-authors=etal |title=Motivating Factors and Tangential Learning for Knowledge Acquisition in Educational Games|url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1154724.pdf|journal=The Electronic Journal of e-Learning|volume= 15| issue = 4 2017}}</ref> points out that intrinsic integration of learning content seems to be a crucial design factor, and that games that include modules for further self-studies tend to present good results. The built-in encyclopedias in the ''[[Civilization (series)|Civilization]]'' games are presented as an example – by using these modules gamers can dig deeper for knowledge about historical events in the gameplay. The importance of rules that regulate learning modules and game experience is discussed by Moreno, C.,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moreno|first=Carlos|year=2014|title=Kiwaka {{!}} Kiwaka Story (by LANDKA ®)|url=http://www.lifeplay.es/volumen3/Analisis/067_070_RAMIREZ_MORENO_Analisis.pdf|journal=LifePlay|volume=3}}</ref> in a case study about the mobile game [[Kiwaka]]. In this game, developed by [[Landka]] in collaboration with [[ESA]] and [[European Southern Observatory|ESO]], progress is rewarded with educational content, as opposed to traditional [[Educational game|education games]] where learning activities are rewarded with gameplay.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eso.org/public/announcements/ann14046/|title=New App Kiwaka Features ESO Material|last=European Southern Observatory|website=www.eso.org|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-06-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://landka.com/documents/10/Kiwaka-PressRelease.pdf|title=Kiaka Press Release|last=Landka|year=2014|website=landka.com/documents/10/Kiwaka-PressRelease.pdf|access-date=2018-06-10|archive-date=2020-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803022811/http://landka.com/documents/10/Kiwaka-PressRelease.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Dialogic learning ===
{{Main|Dialogic learning}}
''Dialogic learning'' is a type of learning based on dialogue.

=== Incidental learning ===
In ''incidental teaching'' learning is not planned by the instructor or the student, it occurs as a byproduct of another activity — an experience, observation, self-reflection, interaction, unique event (e.g. in response to incidents/accidents), or common routine task. This learning happens in addition to or apart from the instructor's plans and the student's expectations. An example of incidental teaching is when the instructor places a train set on top of a cabinet. If the child points or walks towards the cabinet, the instructor prompts the student to say "train". Once the student says "train", he gets access to the train set.

Here are some steps most commonly used in incidental teaching:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nspt4kids.com/healthtopics-and-conditions-database/incidental-teaching/|title=What is incidental teaching?|year=2017|website=North Shore Pediatric Therapy, Illinois|access-date=August 29, 2017|url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829204217/http://nspt4kids.com/healthtopics-and-conditions-database/incidental-teaching/|archive-date=August 29, 2017}}</ref>
* An instructor will arrange the learning environment so that necessary materials are within the student's sight, but not within his reach, thus impacting his motivation to seek out those materials.
* An instructor waits for the student to initiate engagement.
* An instructor prompts the student to respond if needed.
* An instructor allows access to an item/activity contingent on a correct response from the student.
* The instructor fades out the prompting process over a period of time and subsequent trials.

Incidental learning is an occurrence that is not generally accounted for using the traditional methods of instructional objectives and outcomes assessment. This type of learning occurs in part as a product of social interaction and active involvement in both online and onsite courses. Research implies that some un-assessed aspects of onsite and online learning challenge the equivalency of education between the two modalities. Both onsite and online learning have distinct advantages with traditional on-campus students experiencing higher degrees of incidental learning in three times as many areas as online students. Additional research is called for to investigate the implications of these findings both conceptually and pedagogically.<ref>{{cite thesis|last1=Konetes|first1=George|title=The Effects of Distance Education and Student Involvement on Incidental Learning |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=Indiana University of Pennsylvania |date=2011|page=115|url=https://dspace.iup.edu/bitstream/handle/2069/477/George%20Konetes.pdf?sequence=1|access-date=2014-07-12|ref=Incidental Learning|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714130414/https://dspace.iup.edu/bitstream/handle/2069/477/George%20Konetes.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=2014-07-14 |id={{ERIC|ED535973}} {{ProQuest|909895728}} }}</ref>