Editing Linnaean taxonomy (section)

== The taxonomy of Linnaeus ==

In his ''Imperium Naturae'', [[Linnaeus]] established three kingdoms, namely ''Regnum Animale'', ''Regnum Vegetabile'' and ''Regnum Lapideum''. This approach, the Animal, Vegetable and Mineral Kingdoms, survives today in the popular mind, notably in the form of the parlour game question: "Is it [[animal, vegetable or mineral]]?". The work of Linnaeus had a huge impact on science; it was indispensable as a foundation for [[biological nomenclature]], now regulated by the [[nomenclature codes]]. Two of his works, the first edition of the ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' (1753) for plants and the tenth edition of the ''Systema Naturae'' (1758), are accepted as part of the starting points of nomenclature; his binomials (names for species) and generic names take [[Priority (biology)|priority]] over those of others.{{sfn|Polaszek|2010|p=1}} However, the impact he had on science was not because of the value of his taxonomy.

Linnaeus' kingdoms were in turn divided into ''[[Class (biology)|classes]]'', and they, in turn, into ''[[Order (biology)|orders]]'', ''[[genera]]'' (singular: ''genus''), and ''[[species]]'' (singular: ''species''), with an additional rank lower than species, though these do not precisely correspond to the use of these terms in modern taxonomy.{{sfn|Bihrmann|2021}}

=== Classification of plants ===

In ''Systema Naturae'' (1735), his classes and orders of plants, according to his ''Systema Sexuale'', were not intended to represent natural groups (as opposed to his [[ordo naturalis|''ordines naturales'']] in his ''[[Philosophia Botanica]]'') but only for use in identification. However, in 1737 he published ''Genera Plantarum'' in which he claimed that his classification of genera was a natural system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Müller-Wille |first1=Staffan |last2=Reeds |first2=Karen |date=September 2007 |title=A translation of Carl Linnaeus's introduction to Genera plantarum (1737) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2007.06.003 |journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=563–572 |doi=10.1016/j.shpsc.2007.06.003 |pmid=17893065 |issn=1369-8486|url-access=subscription }}</ref> His botanical classification and sexual system were used well in the nineteenth century.<ref>{{cite book|author=Comstock, J.L.|year=1837 |title= An introduction to the study of botany: including a treatise on vegetable physiology, and descriptions of the most common plants in the middle and northern states |publisher=Robinson, Pratt & Co.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QHnvAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Within each class were several orders. This system is based on the number and arrangement of male ([[stamen]]s) and female ([[Gynoecium|pistil]]s) organs.{{sfn|Bremer|2007}}
[[File:SN-p837.jpg|thumb|270px|Key to the Sexual System (from the 10th, 1758, edition of the ''Systema Naturae'')]]
[[File:Kalmia latifolia Great Smoky.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Kalmia]]'' is classified according to  Linnaeus' sexual system in class Decandria, order Monogyna, because it has 10 [[stamen]]s and one [[pistil]]]]

The Linnaean classes for plants, in the Sexual System, were (page numbers refer to ''Species plantarum''):
* Classis 1. Monandria: flowers with 1 stamen
* Classis 2. Diandria: flowers with 2 stamens
* Classis 3. Triandria: flowers with 3 stamens
* Classis 4. Tetrandria: flowers with 4 stamens
* Classis 5. Pentandria: flowers with 5 stamens
* Classis 6. Hexandria: flowers with 6 stamens
** Hexandria monogynia pp.&nbsp;285–352{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/358106#page/297/mode/1up Hexandria monogynia i pp.&nbsp;285–352]}}
** Hexandria polygynia pp.&nbsp;342–343{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/358106#page/354/mode/1up Hexandria polyynia i pp.&nbsp;342–343]}}
* Classis 7. Heptandria: flowers with 7 stamens
* Classis 8. Octandria: flowers with 8 stamens
* Classis 9. Enneandria: flowers with 9 stamens
* Classis 10. Decandria: flowers with 10 stamens
* Classis 11. Dodecandria: flowers with 11 to 19 stamens
* Classis 12. Icosandria: flowers with 20 (or more) stamens, [[Ovary (plants)#Half-inferior ovary|perigynous]]
* Classis 13. Polyandria: flowers with many stamens, inserted on the [[Receptacle (botany)|receptacle]]
* Classis 14. Didynamia: flowers with 4 stamens, 2 long and 2 short
** Gymnospermia{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/3/mode/1up  ii pp.&nbsp;561–601]}}
** Angiospermia{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/44/mode/1up  ii pp.&nbsp;602–639]}}
* Classis 15. Tetradynamia: flowers with 6 stamens, 4 long and 2 short{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/82/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;640–672]}}
* Classis 16. Monadelphia; flowers with the anthers separate, but the filaments united, at least at the base
** Pentandria{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/115/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;673–675]}}
** Decandria{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/117/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;675–683]}}
** Polyandria{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/125/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;683–698]}}
* Classis 17. Diadelphia; flowers with the stamens united in two separate groups{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/141/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;699–781]}}
** Hexandria{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/3/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;699–701]}}
** Octandria{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/3/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;701–706]}}
** Decandria{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/3/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;706–781]}}
* Classis 18. Polyadelphia; flowers with the stamens united in several separate groups{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/224/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;782–788]}}
** Pentandria{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/224/mode/1up ii p.&nbsp;782]}}
** Icosandria{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/224/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;782–783]}}
** Polyandria{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/225/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;783–788]}}
* Classis 19. Syngenesia; flowers with stamens united by their anthers{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/231/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;789–938]}}
** Polygamia aequalis{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/231/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;789–845]}}
** Polygamia superba{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/287/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;845–904]}}
** Polygamia frustranea{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/346/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;904–919]}}
** Polygamia necessaria{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/361/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;919–927]}}
** Monogamia{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/370/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;928–938]}}
* Classis 20. Gynandria; flowers with the stamens united to the pistils{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/381/mode/1up ii pp.&nbsp;939–]}}
* Classis 21. Monoecia: [[monoecious]] plants
* Classis 22. Dioecia: [[dioecious]] plants
* Classis 23. Polygamia: [[Plant sexual morphology#Plant population|polygamodioecious]] plants
* Classis 24. Cryptogamia: the "flowerless" plants, including [[fern]]s, [[fungus|fungi]], [[algae]], and [[bryophyte]]s

The classes based on the number of stamens were then subdivided by the number of pistils, e.g. ''Hexandria monogynia'' with six stamens and one pistil.<ref>{{cite web|title=Linnaeus Sexual System|url=http://cronklab.wikidot.com/linnaeus-sexual-system|website=CronkLab|publisher=Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia|access-date=26 January 2015|ref={{harvid|Linnaeus Sexual System|2015}}}}
</ref> Index to genera p.&nbsp;1201{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/643/mode/1up Index generum p.&nbsp;1201]}}

By contrast his ''ordines naturales'' numbered 69, from Piperitae to Vagae.

=== Classification for animals ===
[[File:Linnaeus - Regnum Animale (1735).png|thumb|400px|The 1735 classification of animals]]

Only in the Animal Kingdom is the higher taxonomy of Linnaeus still more or less recognizable and some of these names are still in use, but usually not quite for the same groups. He divided the Animal Kingdom into six classes. In the tenth edition, of 1758, these were:
* Classis 1. [[Mammalia in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae|Mammalia]] (mammals)
* Classis 2. [[Aves in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae|Aves]] (birds)
* Classis 3. [[Amphibia in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae|Amphibia]] (amphibians)
* Classis 4. [[Pisces in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae|Pisces]] (fishes)
* Classis 5. [[Insecta in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae|Insecta]] (arthropods)
* Classis 6. [[Vermes in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae|Vermes]] (worms)

=== Classification for minerals ===
His taxonomy of [[mineral]]s has long since been dropped from use. In the tenth edition, 1758, of the ''Systema Naturae'', the Linnaean classes were:
* Classis 1. Petræ
* Classis 2. Mineræ
* Classis 3. Fossilia
* Classis 4. Vitamentra