Editing Locative case (section)

==Indo-European languages==
The [[Proto-Indo-European language]] had a locative case expressing "place where", an adverbial function. The endings are reconstructed as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Athematic
| {{PIE|*-i}}, {{PIE|*-Ø}} (no ending)
| {{PIE|*-su}}
|-
! Thematic
| {{PIE|*-e(y)}}, {{PIE|*-oy}}
| {{PIE|*-oysu}}
|}

In most later Indo-European languages, the locative case merged into other cases (often [[Genitive case|genitive]] or [[Dative case|dative]]) in form and/or function, but some daughter languages retained it as a distinct case. It is found in:
* modern [[Balto-Slavic languages]], except [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], although it is mostly{{citation needed|date=March 2017}} used with prepositions in the other [[Slavic languages]]
* some classical [[Indo-European languages]], particularly [[Sanskrit]] and [[Old Latin]]
* (Mostly uncommon, archaic or literary) use in certain modern [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic]] languages (such as [[Bengali language|Bangla]] and [[Marathi language|Marathi]]—in which, however, a separate [[ablative case]] has disappeared)

===Latin===
[[Old Latin]] still had a functioning locative singular, which descended from the Proto-Indo-European form. The locative plural was already identical to the dative and ablative plural. In [[Classical Latin]], changes to the Old Latin diphthongs caused the originally-distinctive ending of the locative singular to become indistinguishable from the endings of some other cases.

{| class="wikitable"
! Declension
! Old Latin
! Classical Latin
! Merger
|-
! 1st
| -āi
| -ae
| Merged with dative/genitive.
|-
! 2nd
| -ei
| -ī
| Merged with genitive.
|-
! 3rd
| -ei, -e
| -ī, -e
| Originally like the dative, but gradually replaced with the ablative.
|-
! 4th
| colspan=2|-ī, -ibus, -ubus
| Gradually replaced with the ablative.
|}

Because the locative was already identical to the ablative (which had a "location" meaning as well) in the plural, the loss of distinction between the endings eventually caused the functions of the locative case to be absorbed by the ablative case in Classical Latin. The original locative singular ending, descended from the Old Latin form, remained in use for a few words. For first and second [[declension]], it was identical to the genitive singular form. In archaic times, the locative singular of third declension nouns was still interchangeable between ablative and dative forms, but in the Augustan Period the use of the ablative form became fixed. Therefore, both forms {{lang|la|rūrī}} and {{lang|la|rūre}} may be encountered.

The Latin locative case was only used for the names of cities, "small" islands and a few other isolated words. The Romans considered all Mediterranean islands to be small except for [[Sicily]], [[Sardinia]], [[Corsica]], [[Crete]], and [[Cyprus]]. [[Britannia]] was also considered to be a "large island". There are a few nouns that use the locative instead of a preposition: {{lang|la|domus}} becomes {{lang|la|domī}} (at home), {{lang|la|rūs}} becomes {{lang|la|rūrī}} (in the country), {{lang|la|humus}} becomes {{lang|la|humī}} (on the ground), {{lang|la|militia}} becomes {{lang|la|militiae}} (in military service, in the field), and ''focus'' becomes ''focī'' (at the hearth; at the center of the community).

The first declension locative is by far the most common, because so many Roman place names were first declension, such as {{lang|la|Roma}}, Rome, and therefore use the same form as the genitive and dative: {{lang|la|Romae}}, at Rome, and {{lang|la|Hiberniae}}, in [[Ireland (island)|Ireland]]. A few place-names were inherently plural, even though they are a single city, e.g. {{lang|la|Athēnae}}, [[Athens]] and {{lang|la|Cūmae}}, Cuma. These plural names also use the form similar to the dative and ablative: {{lang|la|Athēnīs}}, at Athens, and {{lang|la|Cūmīs}}, at Cumae. There are also a number of second declension names that could have locatives, e.g. {{lang|la|Brundisium}}, [[Brindisi]]; {{lang|la|Eborācum}}, [[York]]; with locatives {{lang|la|Brundisiī}}, at Brindisi; {{lang|la|Eborācī}}, at York. The locative cannot express being located at multiple locations; plural forms only exist because certain proper names such as {{lang|la|Athēnae}} happen to be plural. "He is at home" can be expressed by "{{lang|la|(is) domi est}}" using the locative, but "They are at their (individual and separate) homes" cannot be expressed by the locative.

===Greek===
In [[Ancient Greek]], the locative merged with the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] dative, so that the Greek dative represents the Proto-Indo-European dative, [[instrumental case|instrumental]], and locative. The dative with the preposition ἐν ''en'' "in" and the dative of time (e.g., {{lang|el|τῇ τρίτῃ ἡμέρᾳ}}, {{Transliteration|el|tēî trítēi hēmérāi}}, which means "on the third day") are examples of locative datives. Some early texts, in particular Homer, retain the locative in some words (for example {{lang|el|ἠῶθεν}}, {{Transliteration|el|ēôthen}} – at dawn, ''Iliad'' 24.401).

=== Germanic languages ===
The locative case had merged with the dative in early Germanic times and was no longer distinct in [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] or in any of its descendants. The dative, however, contrasts with the [[accusative case]], which is used to indicate motion toward a place (it has an [[allative case|allative]] meaning). The difference in meaning between dative and accusative exists in all of the old Germanic languages and survives in all Germanic languages that retain a distinction between the two cases.

=== Sanskrit ===
The locative case in Sanskrit is usually known as the "seventh case" ({{lang|sa|saptami vibhakti}}). It is the last out of the main seven cases ({{lang|sa|vibkhatis}}) in the language. Along with "in", "on", "at", "or", and "by", the locative case is also generally used with "among" in Sanskrit.

===Slavic languages===
Among [[Slavic languages]], the locative is mostly used after a fixed set of commonly used prepositions. Besides location, Slavic languages also employ locative as a way of expressing the method of doing an action, time when the action is to take place, as well as the topic or theme that something describes in more detail; as such it is subordinate to other cases. The locative is kept in all Slavic languages (except for Bulgarian and Macedonian), although Russian split it (in the singular of a group of masculine nouns) into locative and [[Prepositional case|prepositional]], and [[Serbo-Croatian]] uses almost the same set of endings (sometimes with different intonation) as for the [[Dative case|dative]]. The ending depends on whether the word is a noun or an adjective (among other factors).

====Old Slavic====
In [[Old Church Slavonic]], the locative is mostly used with a preposition. Some uses of independent locatives remain, mostly in expressions of time, such as {{lang|cu|zimě}} "in winter", {{lang|cu|polu nošti}} "at midnight". The locative also occurs as the complement of a handful of verbs, such as {{lang|cu|kŭto prikosnǫ sę rizaxŭ moixŭ?}} "who touched my garments?". In [[Old East Slavic]], moreover, place names are regularly used in the locative without a preposition.

====Czech====
The [[Czech language]] uses the locative case to denote location ({{lang|cs|v České republice}}, 'in the Czech Republic'), but as in the [[Russian language]], the locative case may be used after certain prepositions with meanings other than location ({{lang|cs|o Praze}}, 'about Prague', {{lang|cs|po revoluci}}, 'after the revolution'). Cases other than the locative may be used to denote location in Czech as well ({{lang|cs|U Roberta}}, 'at Robert's house' -genitive, or {{lang|cs|nad stolem}}, 'above the table' -instrumental).

The locative case (commonly called the 6th case) is the only one of the 7 Czech cases which cannot be used without a preposition. It is used with these prepositions:
* {{lang|cs|v}} ({{lang|cs|v místnosti}} = in the room, {{lang|cs|v Praze}} = in Prague). Using this preposition with the accusative case has a different meaning ({{lang|cs|v les}} = to the forest) and is regarded as archaic
* {{lang|cs|na}} ({{lang|cs|na stole}} = on the desk, {{lang|cs|to záleží na tobě}} = it depends on you). The use of this preposition with the accusative case has a different meaning ({{lang|cs|na stůl}} = to the desk).
* {{lang|cs|po}} (in different meanings: past, after, on, to, for, by). This preposition takes the accusative case in some meanings.
* {{lang|cs|při}} (by, nearby, with)
* {{lang|cs|o}} (about, of, on, for, at, during, by, with, over, against, using). This preposition with the accusative case has a different use and meaning ({{lang|cs|jedná se o to ≠ jedná se o tom}}).

If the preposition uses both accusative and locative case, the accusative is used for direction (where to) while locative for pure location (where). In case of the preposition {{lang|cs|o}} (about), this distinction can be very subtle and untranslatable, or depending on the controlling verb.

The locative form of substantives in the singular is mostly identical with the dative case (3rd case). Possible endings for locative case:
* -u (hard masculines: {{lang|cs|o pánu, hradu}}, hard neuters: {{lang|cs|městu}})
* -i (soft masculines: {{lang|cs|o muži, stroji, soudci}}, some neuters: {{lang|cs|moři}}, some feminines: {{lang|cs|růži, písni, kosti}})
* -ovi (animate masculines: {{lang|cs|o pánovi, mužovi, předsedovi, soudcovi}})
* -e ({{lang|cs|o lese, o Mařce}})
* -ě ({{lang|cs|na hradě, o ženě, o městě}})
* -eti ({{lang|cs|o kuřeti, knížeti}})
* -í ({{lang|cs|o stavení}})

For adjectives and adjectival substantives:
* -ém (-ým or -ym in Common Czech) for hard masculine and neuter adjectives ({{lang|cs|o mladém, vo mladým, o vrátném}})
* -m for soft masculine and neuter adjectives ({{lang|cs|o jarním, o průvodčím}})
* -é (-ý or -ej in Common Czech) for hard feminine adjectives ({{lang|cs|o mladé, vo mladý, vo mladej}})
* -í for soft feminine adjectives ({{lang|cs|o jarní}})

The locative form in the plural typically has the ending "-ch" ({{lang|cs|o mladých ženách}}), the dual has ending -ou ({{lang|cs|v obou dvou případech, na rukou}}).

See [[Czech declension]] for declension patterns for all Czech grammatical cases, including the locative.

====Slovak====
The [[Slovak language]] uses the locative case to denote location ({{lang|sk|na Slovensku}}, 'in Slovakia'), but as in the [[Russian language]], the locative case may be used after certain prepositions with meanings other than location ({{lang|sk|o Bratislave}}, 'about Bratislava, {{lang|sk|po revolúcii}}, 'after the revolution'). Cases other than the locative may be used to denote location in Slovak as well ({{lang|sk|U Milana}}, 'at Milan's house' -genitive, or {{lang|sk|nad stolom}}, 'above the table' -instrumental). A preposition must always be used with this case.

There are several different locative endings in Slovak:
* '''-e''' Used for singular nouns of all genders (except masculine animate), e.g. {{lang|sk|stôl → o stole, láska → v láske, mesto → po meste}}.
* '''-u''' Used for:
** Masculine inanimate singular nouns ending in a [[velar consonant]], e.g. {{lang|sk|hliník → o hliníku, mozog → v mozgu, bok → na boku, vzduch → vo vzduchu}}, or a [[glottal consonant]], e.g. {{lang|sk|hloh → po hlohu}}
** All neuter singular nouns ending in ''-kV, -chV, -iV, -uV'' (V being ''o'' or ''um''), e.g. {{lang|sk|jablko → v jablku, ucho → na uchu, akvárium → pri akváriu, vákuum → vo vákuu}}
* '''-i''' Used for:
** Masculine inanimate nouns ending in a soft consonant (''c, č, ď, dz, dž, j, ľ, ň, š, ť, ž''), e.g. {{lang|sk|ovládač}} ("remote") → {{lang|sk|o ovládači}} ("about the remote"), {{lang|sk|tŕň → v tŕni}}
** Feminine nouns ending in a soft consonant or a soft consonant followed by ''a'', e.g. {{lang|sk|vôňa → o vôni}}, {{lang|sk|kosť}} ("bone") → {{lang|sk|o kosti}} ("about bone")
** Feminine nouns ending in -ia or -ea, e.g. {{lang|sk|Mária → na Márii, Andrea → v Andrei}}
** Neuter nouns ending in -e or -{{Not a typo|ie}}, e.g. {{lang|sk|srdce → pri srdci}}
* '''-í''' used for neuter nouns ending in -{{Not a typo|ie}}, e.g. {{lang|sk|vysvedčenie → na vysvedčení}}
* '''-ovi''' used for masculine animate nouns, e.g. {{lang|sk|chlap → o chlapovi, hrdina → po hrdinovi}}
* '''-om''' used for masculine and neuter singular adjectives: {{lang|sk|pekný/pekné → o peknom}}
* '''-ej''' used for feminine singular adjectives and feminine nouns ending in -á: {{lang|sk|pekná gazdiná → na peknej gazdinej}}
* '''-m''' used for masculine animate nouns following the kuli pattern (being most names in -i, -y etc.), e.g. {{lang|sk|Harry → o Harrym}}
* '''-och''' used for masculine nouns in plural, e.g. {{lang|sk|malí chlapi → o malých chlapoch}}
* '''-ách''' used for plural feminine and neuter nouns, e.g. {{lang|sk|ženy}} ("women") → {{lang|sk|o ženách}} ("about women"). There are variations:
** '''-ach''' used when the preceding vowel is long or a diphthong (''ia, ie, iu, ô''), e.g. {{lang|sk|lásky → v láskach, dielo → pri dielach}}
** '''-iach''' used after soft consonants, e.g. {{lang|sk|schopnosť → o schopnostiach, srdce → v srdciach}}
* '''-ích / -ých''' Used for plural adjectives of all genders, e.g. {{lang|sk|malé obchody}} ("small shops") → {{lang|sk|v malých obchodoch}} ("in small shops"), with the variation:
** '''-ich / -ych''' when the preceding vowel is long: {{lang|sk|rýchle autá}} ("fast cars") → {{lang|sk|o rýchlych autách}} ("about fast cars")

See also [[Slovak declension]] for declension patterns for all Slovak grammatical cases, including locative.

====Polish====
There are several different locative endings in [[Polish language|Polish]]:
* '''-ie''' Used for singular nouns of all genders, e.g. {{lang|pl|niebo → niebie}}. In a few cases, the softening indicated by {{lang|pl|i}} has led to consonant alternations:
** {{lang|pl|brat → bracie}}
** {{lang|pl|rzeka → rzece}}
** {{lang|pl|noga → nodze}}
** {{lang|pl|rower → rowerze}}
** {{lang|pl|piekło → piekle}}
For a complete list, see [[b:Polish/Hard and soft consonants|Polish hard and soft consonants]].
* '''-u''' Used for:
** Some masculine singular nouns, e.g. {{lang|pl|syn → synu, dom → domu, bok → boku, brzuch → brzuchu, worek → worku*, nastrój → nastroju*, deszcz → deszczu, miś → misiu, koń → koniu, [[Poznań]] → Poznaniu, [[Wrocław]] → Wrocławiu, [[Bytom]] → Bytomiu**}} [* In a few cases, a vowel change may occur, e.g. ó → o, or a vowel may be dropped. ** Final consonants in Wrocław and Bytom used to be soft, which is still reflected in suffixed forms, hence -i-.]
** All neuter singular nouns ending in {{lang|pl|-e}}, e.g. {{lang|pl|miejsce → miejscu, życie → życiu}}
** Some neuter singular nouns ending in {{lang|pl|-o}}, e.g. {{lang|pl|mleko → mleku, łóżko → łóżku, ucho → uchu}}
* '''-i''' Used for:
** Feminine nouns ending in {{lang|pl|-ia}}, e.g. {{lang|pl|Kasia}} ("Katie") → {{lang|pl|o Kasi}} ("about Katie"), {{lang|pl|Austria → w Austrii}} ("in Austria")
** Feminine nouns ending in {{lang|pl|-ść}}, e.g. {{lang|pl|miłość}} ("love") → {{lang|pl|o miłości}} ("about love")
* '''-im / -ym''' Used for masculine and neuter singular adjectives, e.g. {{lang|pl|język polski}} ("Polish language") → {{lang|pl|w języku polskim}} ("in the Polish language")
* '''-ej''' Used for feminine singular adjectives, e.g. {{lang|pl|duża krowa}} ("big cow") → {{lang|pl|o dużej krowie}} ("about a big cow")

In plural:
* '''-ach''' Used for plural nouns of all genders, e.g. {{lang|pl|kobiety}} ("women") → {{lang|pl|o kobietach}} ("about women")
* '''-ich / -ych''' Used for plural adjectives of all genders, e.g. {{lang|pl|małe sklepy}} ("small shops") → {{lang|pl|w małych sklepach}} ("in small shops")

====Russian====
In the Russian language, the locative case has largely lost its use as an independent case and become the [[prepositional case]], which is used only after a [[preposition]]. The latter is not always used to indicate location, while other cases may also be used to specify location (e.g. the genitive case, as in {{lang|ru|у окна}}, {{Transliteration|ru|u okna}} ("by the window")). Statements such as {{lang|ru|в библиотеке}}, {{Transliteration|ru|v biblioteke}} ("in the library") or {{lang|ru|на Аляске}}, {{Transliteration|ru|na Aljaske}} ("in [[Alaska]]"), demonstrate the use of the prepositional case to indicate location. However, this case is also used after the preposition "о" ("about") as in {{lang|ru|о студенте}}, {{Transliteration|ru|o studente}} ("about the student").

Nevertheless, approximately [[wikt:Category:Russian nouns with locative singular|150 masculine nouns]] retain a distinct form for the locative case, used only after "в" and "на". These forms end in "-у́" or "-ю́": {{lang|ru|лежать в снегу́}}, {{Transliteration|ru|ležať v snegú}} (to lie in the snow), but {{lang|ru|думать о сне́ге}}, {{Transliteration|ru|dumať o snége}} (to think about snow). Other examples are {{lang|ru|рай}}, {{Transliteration|ru|raj}} ([[paradise]]); "в раю́", {{lang|ru|дым}}, {{Transliteration|ru|dym}} (smoke); and {{lang|ru|в дыму́}}, {{Transliteration|ru|v dymú}}. As indicated by the accent marks, the stress is always on the last syllable, which is unlike the dative-case forms with the same spelling. A few feminine nouns that end with the [[soft sign]], such as дверь and пыль, also have a locative form that differs from the prepositional in that the stress shifts to the final syllable: {{lang|ru|на двери́}}, {{Transliteration|ru|na dverí}} ("on the door"), but {{lang|ru|при две́ри}}, {{Transliteration|ru|pri dvéri}} ("by the door"). These distinct feminine forms are sometimes referenced as "second locative" or "new locative", because they developed independently from the true locative case, which existed in Old Russian.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Brown|first1=Dunstan|date=2013|title=Peripheral functions and overdifferentiation: The Russian second locative|url=http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/1334/1/fulltext.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=21 August 2015|website=Surrey Morphology Group|publisher=University of Surrey|location=Surrey, UK|archive-date=3 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403154709/http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/esploro/outputs/journalArticle/Peripheral-functions-and-overdifferentiation-The-Russian/99516148302346#file-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://languages.uchicago.edu/casebooks/russian/book/Locative.pdf |title=The Locative Case |access-date=2010-02-09 |archive-date=2010-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610035410/http://languages.uchicago.edu/casebooks/russian/book/Locative.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://www.aatseel.org/100111/pdf/aatseeloct07nl.pdf Everything you always wanted to know about Russian grammar but were afraid to ask] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100504141221/http://www.aatseel.org/100111/pdf/aatseeloct07nl.pdf |date=2010-05-04 }}, AATSEEL Newsletter, October 2007, pp. 7–8.</ref>

With some words, such as {{lang|ru|дом}}, {{Transliteration|ru|dom}} (house), the second locative form is used only in certain idiomatic expressions, while the prepositional is used elsewhere. For example, {{lang|ru|на дому́}}, {{Transliteration|ru|na domu}} ("at the house" or "at home") would be used to describe activity that is performed at home, while {{lang|ru|на до́ме}} ("on the house") would be used to specify the location of the roof.

====Ukrainian====
The [[Ukrainian language]] uses the locative case to denote locations. For example, "A pen is on a book" would be written as "{{langx|uk|Ручка на книжці|Ruchka na knyzhtsi|label=none}}" in the locative.<ref name="Huys41">{{cite book |last=Huys |first=N. |title=Ukrainian Grammar For Beginners |publisher=Nicky Huys Books |year=2024 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xswEQAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=4 January 2025 |pages=41, 44–45}}</ref> Ukrainian locative and instrumental cases usually go with a [[preposition]], unlike the other four [[Ukrainian grammar#Case|cases in Ukrainian grammar]], that may generally be employed without prepositions. The most common locative prepositions are {{langx|uk|на|na|on|label=none}}, and {{langx|uk|в, у, уві, ув|v, u, uvi, uv|in|label=none}}; usage of these four different variations of "in" depends on whether the next word starts with a [[consonant]] or [[vowel]].{{sfn|Nedashkivska|2001|p=213}}

The locative is used to indicate static spatial relationships and to talk about thoughts, discussions and nuanced ideas.<ref name="Huys41"/>{{sfn|Nedashkivska|2001|pp=213–214}} It is distinguished from dynamic spatial relationships,{{sfn|Nedashkivska|2001|pp=213–214}} which indicate action or motion,<ref name="Huys41"/>{{sfn|Nedashkivska|2001|pp=213–214}} and are expressed in the [[accusative case]] in Ukrainian and most other East Slavic languages.{{sfn|Nedashkivska|2001|pp=213–214}} The adlative "goal function", which in most East Slavic grammars is prescribed to be expressed in accusative (for example, {{langx|uk|Ми поклали книжку на стіл|My poklaly knyzhku na stil|We laid a book on the table|label=none}}), may in Ukrainian sometimes be expressed in locative instead ({{langx|uk|Ми поклали книжку на столі|My poklaly knyzhku na stoli|We laid a book on the table|label=none}}; the difference in meaning cannot be translated into English), but it is only considered acceptable under certain circumstances.{{sfn|Nedashkivska|2001|p=215}}

Ukrainian, unlike Russian, still retains a fully functional locative case. However, during the [[Russification of Ukraine#Soviet period|Russification of Soviet Ukraine]] between the 1930s and the 1980s, several expressions in the Ukrainian language using the locative case, such as "{{langx|uk|на адресу|na adresu|at the address|label=none}}", were changed by Soviet linguistic policies, in this instance to a [[genitive case]] to "{{langx|uk|за адресою|za adresoyu|label=none}}", in order to conform to standard Russian "{{langx|ru|за адресом|za adresom|label=none}}".{{sfn|Bilaniuk|2005|pp=92–93}} On the other hand, post-Soviet users of [[Surzhyk]] may mistakenly be employing the locative Russian form, instead of the [[instrumental case|instrumental]] Ukrainian form, in a sentence like "The book is written in English":{{sfn|Bilaniuk|2005|p=139}}
* Standard {{langx|uk|Книга написана англійською мовою|Knyha napysana anhlijs'koju movoju|book written English language [instrumental case]}}{{sfn|Bilaniuk|2005|p=139}}
* [[Surzhyk]] form: {{langx|uk|Книга написана на англійській мові|<small>[[Romanization of Ukrainian|romanized]]:</small> Knyha napysana na anhlijs'kij movi|<small>[[literal translation|lit.]]</small> 'book written on English language [locative case]|label=none}}{{sfn|Bilaniuk|2005|p=139}}
* Standard {{langx|ru|Книга написана на английском языке|Kniga napisana na anglijskom jazyke|book written on English language [locative case]}}{{sfn|Bilaniuk|2005|p=139}}

===Armenian===
In the Eastern standard of the [[Armenian language]] non-animate nouns take {{lang|hy|-ում}} ({{Transliteration|hy|-um}}) for the locative. Animate nouns (referring to persons especially) do not take the locative.

{{fs interlinear|lang=hy|number=1)
|համալսարանը → համալսարան'''ում'''
|hamalsaranə {} hamalsaran'''um'''
|{the university} {} {in/at the university}
|}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=hy|number=2)
|ճաշարան → ճաշարան'''ում'''
|chasharan {} chasharan'''um'''
|{a restaurant} {} {in/at a restaurant}
|}}