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Logic gate
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== History and development == The [[binary number system]] was refined by [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] (published in 1705), influenced by the ancient ''[[I Ching]]''{{'}}s binary system.<ref name="Nylan2001">{{cite book |author-first=Michael |author-last=Nylan |title=The Five "Confucian" Classics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KykM1DhBxd8C&pg=PA206 |access-date=2010-06-08 |date=2001 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-08185-5 |pages=204–206}}</ref><ref name="binary">{{cite book |author-first=Franklin |author-last=Perkins |title=Leibniz and China: A Commerce of Light |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2004 |isbn= 9780521830249|pages=117 |chapter=Exchange with China |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Jzv9IoAHFsC&dq=117&pg=PA117 |quote=... one of the traditional orderings of the hexagrams, the ''xiantian tu'' ordering made by Shao Yong, was, with a few modifications, the same order found in Leibniz's binary arithmetic.}}</ref> Leibniz established that using the binary system combined the principles of [[arithmetic]] and [[logic]]. The [[analytical engine]] devised by [[Charles Babbage]] in 1837 used mechanical logic gates based on gears.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FCjOBgAAQBAJ&dq=Babbage+Logic+Gate&pg=PA17 |title=Embedded Systems Circuits and Programming |author1=Julio Sanchez |author2=Maria P. Canton |publisher=CRC Press |date=Dec 19, 2017 |page=17|isbn=978-1-4398-7931-3 }}</ref> In an 1886 letter, [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] described how logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits.<ref name="P2M">Peirce, C. S., "Letter, Peirce to [[Allan Marquand|A. Marquand]]", dated 1886, ''[[Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography#W|Writings of Charles S. Peirce]]'', v. 5, 1993, pp. 420–423. See {{cite journal |author-link=Arthur W. Burks |author-first=Arthur W. |author-last=Burks |title=Review: Charles S. Peirce, ''The new elements of mathematics'' |journal=[[Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society]] |volume=84 |issue=5 |pages=913–918 [917] |date=1978 |doi= 10.1090/S0002-9904-1978-14533-9|url=http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS/Repository/1.0/Disseminate?view=body&id=pdf_1&handle=euclid.bams/1183541145|doi-access=free }}</ref> Early [[Electromechanical computer]]s were constructed from [[switch]]es and [[relay logic]] rather than the later innovations of [[vacuum tube]]s (thermionic valves) or [[transistor]]s (from which later electronic computers were constructed). [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] introduced a version of the 16-row [[truth table]] as proposition 5.101 of ''[[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]'' (1921). [[Walther Bothe]], inventor of the [[coincidence circuit]],<ref>Luisa Bonolis; Walther Bothe and Bruno Rossi: The birth and development of coincidence methods in cosmic-ray physics. Am. J. Phys. 1 November 2011; 79 (11): 1133–1150.</ref> got part of the 1954 [[Nobel Prize]] in physics, for the first modern electronic AND gate in 1924. [[Konrad Zuse]] designed and built electromechanical logic gates for his computer [[Z1 (computer)|Z1]] (from 1935 to 1938). From 1934 to 1936, [[NEC]] engineer [[Akira Nakashima]], [[Claude Shannon]] and [[Victor Shestakov]] introduced [[switching circuit theory]] in a series of papers showing that [[Two-element Boolean algebra|two-valued]] [[Boolean algebra]], which they discovered independently, can describe the operation of switching circuits.<ref>{{cite journal |title=History of Research on Switching Theory in Japan |journal=IEEJ Transactions on Fundamentals and Materials |volume=124 |issue=8 |pages=720–726 |date=2004 |doi= 10.1541/ieejfms.124.720|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ieejfms/124/8/124_8_720/_article |publisher=[[Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan]]|last1= Yamada|first1= Akihiko|bibcode=2004IJTFM.124..720Y |doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Switching Theory/Relay Circuit Network Theory/Theory of Logical Mathematics |date= |work=IPSJ Computer Museum |publisher=[[Information Processing Society of Japan]] |url=http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/0002.html}}</ref><ref name="historical">{{cite book |author-first1=Radomir S. |author-last1=Stanković |author-first2=Jaakko T. |author-last2=Astola |author-first3=Mark G. |author-last3=Karpovsky |citeseerx=10.1.1.66.1248 |title=Some Historical Remarks on Switching Theory |date=2007}}</ref><ref name="Stanković-Astola_2008">{{cite book |editor-first1=Radomir S.<!-- Stanislav? --> |editor-last1=Stanković |editor-link1=:de:Radomir S. Stanković |editor-first2=Jaakko Tapio |editor-last2=Astola |editor-link2=:fi:Jaakko Tapio Astola |date=2008 |isbn=978-952-15-1980-2 |issn=1456-2774 |volume=40 |issue=2 |url=http://ticsp.cs.tut.fi/reports/reprint-nakashima-rr.pdf |title=Reprints from the Early Days of Information Sciences: TICSP Series On the Contributions of Akira Nakashima to Switching Theory |series=Tampere International Center for Signal Processing (TICSP) Series |location=[[Tampere University of Technology]], Tampere, Finland |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308002559/http://ticsp.cs.tut.fi/reports/reprint-nakashima-rr.pdf |archive-date=2021-03-08}} (3+207+1 pages) [https://web.archive.org/web/20221026175726/http://ciitlab.elfak.ni.ac.rs/predavanja/09_Nakashima.mp4 10:00 min]</ref> Using this property of electrical switches to implement logic is the fundamental concept that underlies all electronic digital [[computer]]s. Switching circuit theory became the foundation of [[digital circuit]] design, as it became widely known in the electrical engineering community during and after [[World War II]], with theoretical rigor superseding the ''ad hoc'' methods that had prevailed previously.<ref name="Stanković-Astola_2008"/> In 1948, [[John Bardeen|Bardeen]] and [[Walter Houser Brattain|Brattain]] patented an insulated-gate transistor (IGFET) with an inversion layer. Their concept forms the basis of CMOS technology today.<ref>{{cite book |author=Howard R. Duff |title=AIP Conference Proceedings |date=2001 |volume=550 |pages=3–32 |chapter=John Bardeen and transistor physics |doi=10.1063/1.1354371 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In 1957 Frosch and Derick were able to manufacture [[PMOS logic|PMOS]] and [[NMOS logic|NMOS]] planar gates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Frosch |first1=C. J. |last2=Derick |first2=L |date=1957 |title=Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.2428650 |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |language=en |volume=104 |issue=9 |pages=547 |doi=10.1149/1.2428650|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Later a team at Bell Labs demonstrated a working MOS with PMOS and NMOS gates.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lojek |first=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-540-34258-8 |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |page=321}}</ref> Both types were later combined and adapted into [[complementary MOS]] (CMOS) logic by [[Chih-Tang Sah]] and [[Frank Wanlass]] at [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] in 1963.<ref name="computerhistory1963">{{cite web |title=1963: Complementary MOS Circuit Configuration is Invented |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/complementary-mos-circuit-configuration-is-invented/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=6 July 2019}}</ref>
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