Editing Lower Sorbian language (section)

==Phonology==
[[File:Bilinguale Straßenbeschilderung Cottbus.jpg|thumb|Bilingual road sign in [[Cottbus]], Germany]]

The phonology of Lower Sorbian has been greatly influenced by [[language contact|contact]] with [[German language|German]], especially in Cottbus and larger towns. For example, German-influenced pronunciation tends to have a [[voiced uvular fricative]] {{IPA|[ʁ]}} instead of the alveolar trill {{IPA|[r]}}. In villages and rural areas, German influence is less marked, and the pronunciation is more "typically Slavic".

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Consonant phonemes{{sfnp|Stone|2002|p=605}}{{sfnp|Zygis|2003|pp=180–181}}
!colspan=2 rowspan=2 | 
!colspan=2 | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
!colspan=2 | [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!colspan=2 | [[Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]
!colspan=2 | [[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
!rowspan=2 | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-class=small
! [[Tenuis consonant|hard]]
! [[Palatalization (phonetics)|soft]]
! [[Tenuis consonant|hard]]
! [[Palatalization (phonetics)|soft]]
! [[Tenuis consonant|hard]]
! [[Palatalization (phonetics)|soft]]
! [[Tenuis consonant|hard]]
! [[Palatalization (phonetics)|soft]]
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| ({{IPA link|mʲ}})
| {{IPA link|n}}
| {{IPA link|nʲ}}
|
|
| ({{IPA link|ŋ}})
| ({{IPA link|ŋʲ}})
|
|- 
!rowspan=2| [[Stop consonant|Plosive]]
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPA link|p}}
| ({{IPA link|pʲ}})
| {{IPA link|t̪|t}}
| ({{IPA link|tʲ}})
|
|
| {{IPA link|k}}
| ({{IPA link|kʲ}})
|
|-
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| {{IPA link|b}}
| ({{IPA link|bʲ}})
| {{IPA link|d̪|d}}
| ({{IPA link|dʲ}})
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɡ}}
| ({{IPA link|ɡʲ}})
|
|- 
! colspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|t̪͡s̪|t͡s}}
|
| {{IPA link|t͡ʂ|t͡ʃ}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ɕ}}
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPA link|f}}
| ({{IPA link|fʲ}})
| {{IPA link|s̪|s}}
|
| {{IPA link|ʂ|ʃ}}
| {{IPA link|ɕ}}
| {{IPA link|x}}
| ({{IPA link|xʲ}})
| {{IPA link|h}}
|- 
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| {{IPA link|v}}
| ({{IPA link|vʲ}})
| {{IPA link|z̪|z}}
|
| {{IPA link|ʐ|ʒ}}
| {{IPA link|ʑ}}
|
|
| rowspan="3" |
|-
! colspan=2| [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|r}}
| {{IPA link|rʲ}}
|
|
|
|
|- 
! colspan=2| [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| {{IPA link|w}}
| {{IPA link|ɥ|wʲ}}
| {{IPA link|l}}
| ({{IPA link|lʲ}})
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|j}}
|}

* {{IPA|/m, mʲ, p, pʲ, b, bʲ/}} are [[Bilabial consonant|bilabial]], whereas {{IPA|/f, v/}} are [[Labiodental consonant|labiodental]],{{sfnp|Stone|2002|p=605}} {{IPA|/w, wʲ/}} are [[Labialized_velar_consonant|labiovelar]],<ref>{{citation|title = Niedersorbische Aussprache|publisher = [[Sorbian Institute|Serbski Institut]]}}</ref> although the latter may be a [[labial–palatal approximant]].
* Consonants in parentheses are allophones of another consonant before another consonant or vowel, for example {{IPA|/m/}} may [[Palatalization_(sound_change)|palatalize]] to {{IPA|/mʲ/}} before front vowels or {{IPA|/j/}}, and {{IPA|/n/}} may [[Assimilation_(phonology)|assimilate]] to {{IPA|/ŋ/}} before [[velar consonants]].
* The [[Proto-Slavic]] contrasts between {{IPA|/m, p, b, v/}} and their palatalized counterparts has been lost phonetically in Lower Sorbian, with the marginal phonemes occurring only before certain vowels. The contrasts between {{IPA|/t, d/}} and their palatalized counterparts has evolved into a contrast between {{IPA|/t, d/}} and {{IPA|/ɕ, ʑ/}}. The contrast between {{IPA|/l/}} and its palatalized counterpart has evolved into a contrast between {{IPA|/w, l/}} while the contrasts between {{IPA|/n, r/}} and their palatalized counterparts has remained intact and the contrasts between {{IPA|/s, z/}} and their palatalized counterparts no longer exists.<ref>{{citation|title=Sound Change and the Structure of Synchronic Variability: Phonetic and Phonological Factors in Slavic Palatalization|author=Iskarous, Khalil, and Kavitskaya, Darya|publisher=[[Linguistic Society of America]]|url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/Iskarous&Kavitskaya.pdf}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/n, nʲ, l, r, rʲ/}} are alveolar {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|n}}, nʲ, {{IPAplink|l}}, {{IPAplink|r}}, rʲ]}}, whereas {{IPA|/t, d, t͡s, s, z/}} are dental {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|t̪}}, {{IPAplink|d̪}}, {{IPAplink|t̪͡s̪}}, {{IPAplink|s̪}}, {{IPAplink|z̪}}]}}.{{sfnp|Stone|2002|p=605}}
* {{IPA|/t͡ʃ, ʃ, ʒ/}} have been variously transcribed with {{angbr IPA|t͡ʃ, ʃ, ʒ}}{{sfnp|Hannusch|1998}}{{sfnp|Stone|2002}} and {{angbr IPA|t͡ʂ, ʂ, ʐ}}.{{sfnp|Zygis|2003}} Their actual phonetic realization is flat postalveolar {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|t͡ʂ|t͡ʃ˖}}, {{IPAplink|ʂ|ʃ˖}}, {{IPAplink|ʐ|ʒ˖}}]}}<ref>This transcription follows {{Harvcoltxt|Laver|1994|pp=251–252}}. Other scholars may transcribe these sounds differently.</ref> in all of the Lower Sorbian-speaking area. This is unlike in standard Upper Sorbian, where these are [[Palato-alveolar consonant|palato-alveolar]] {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|t͡ʃ}}, {{IPAplink|ʃ}}, {{IPAplink|ʒ}}]}}.{{sfnp|Zygis|2003|pp=180–181, 190–191}}{{sfnp|Schuster-Šewc|1984|pp=40–41}}

====Final devoicing and assimilation====
Lower Sorbian has both [[final devoicing]] and regressive [[phonation|voicing]] [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]]:{{sfnp|Hannusch|1998|p=12}} 
*''dub'' {{IPA|/dub/}} "oak" is pronounced {{IPA|[dup]}}
*''susedka'' {{IPA|/ˈsusedka/}} "(female) neighbor" is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈsusetka]}}
*''licba'' {{IPA|/ˈlit͡sba/}} "number" is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈlʲid͡zba]}}

The hard postalveolar fricative {{IPA|/ʃ/}} is assimilated to {{IPA|[ɕ]}} before {{IPA|/t͡ɕ/}}:{{sfnp|Hannusch|1998|p=13}}
*''šćit'' {{IPA|/ʃt͡ɕit/}} "protection" is pronounced {{IPA|[ɕt͡ɕit]}}

===Vowels===
The vowel inventory of Lower Sorbian is exactly the same as that of Upper Sorbian.{{sfnp|Stone|2002|p=600}} It is also very similar to the vowel inventory of [[Slovene language|Slovene]].

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Vowel phonemes{{sfnp|Stone|2002|p=600}}
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! align="left" | [[Close vowel|Close]]
| align="center" | {{IPA link|i}}
| align="center" | ({{IPA link|ɨ}})
| align="center" | {{IPA link|u}}
|-
! align="left" | [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| align="center" | {{IPA link|e}}
|
| align="center" | {{IPA link|o}}
|-
! align="left" | [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| align="center" | {{IPA link|ɛ}}
|
| align="center" | {{IPA link|ɔ}}
|-
! align="left" | [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| align="center" | {{IPA link|ä|a}}
|
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|- class="Diphthong"
! [[Diphthong]]
! i-
! -j
! -w
|-
! align="left" | Close
|style="text-align:center"| {{IPA|iɪ}}
|style="text-align:center"| {{IPA|ij&nbsp;&nbsp;ɨj&nbsp;&nbsp;uj}}
|style="text-align:center"| {{IPA|iw&nbsp;&nbsp;ɨw&nbsp;&nbsp;uw}}
|-
! align="left" | Mid
|
|style="text-align:center"| {{IPA|ej&nbsp;&nbsp;ɔj}}
|style="text-align:center"| {{IPA|ɛw&nbsp;&nbsp;ow}}
|-
! align="left" | Open
|
|style="text-align:center"| {{IPA|aj}}
|style="text-align:center"| {{IPA|aw}}
|}

* {{IPA|/i/}} is retracted to {{IPA|[ɨ]}} after hard consonants.
* {{IPA|/e, o/}} are diphthongized to {{IPA|[i̯ɛ, u̯ɔ]}} in slow speech.{{sfnp|Stone|2002|p=600}}
* The {{IPA|/e–ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/o–ɔ/}} distinctions are weakened or lost in unstressed syllables.{{sfnp|Stone|2002|pp=606–607}}
* {{IPA|/a/}} is phonetically central {{IPAblink|ä}}.{{sfnp|Stone|2002|p=600}}

===Stress===
[[Stress (linguistics)|Stress]] in Lower Sorbian normally falls on the first [[syllable]] of the word:{{sfnp|Hannusch|1998|p=14}}

* {{lang|dsb|Łužyca}} {{IPA|[ˈwuʒɨt͡sa]}} "[[Lusatia]]"
* {{lang|dsb|pśijaśel}} {{IPA|[ˈpɕijaɕɛl]}} "friend"
* {{lang|dsb|Chóśebuz}} {{IPA|[ˈxɨɕɛbus]}} "[[Cottbus]]"

In [[loanword]]s, stress may fall on any of the last three syllables:{{sfnp|Hannusch|1998|p=14}}

* {{lang|dsb|internat}} {{IPA|[intɛrˈnat]}} "boarding school"
* {{lang|dsb|kontrola}} {{IPA|[kɔnˈtrɔla]}} "control"
* {{lang|dsb|september}} {{IPA|[sɛpˈtɛmbɛr]}} "September"
* {{lang|dsb|policija}} {{IPA|[pɔˈlʲit͡sija]}} "police"
* {{lang|dsb|organizacija}} {{IPA|[ɔrɡanʲiˈzat͡sija]}} "organization"

Most one-syllable prepositions attract the stress to themselves when they precede a noun or pronoun of one or two syllables:{{sfnp|Hannusch|1998|p=14}}

* {{lang|dsb|na dwórje}} {{IPA|[ˈna dwɨrʲɛ]}} "on the courtyard"
* {{lang|dsb|pśi mnjo}} {{IPA|[ˈpɕi mnʲɔ]}} "near me"
* {{lang|dsb|do města}} {{IPA|[ˈdɔ mʲɛsta]}} "into the city" (the {{IPA|[iɪ̯]}} of {{lang|dsb|město}} {{IPA|[ˈmʲiɪ̯stɔ]}} becomes {{IPA|[ɛ]}} when unstressed)

However, nouns of three or more syllables retain their stress:

* {{lang|dsb|pśed wucabnikom}} {{IPA|[pɕɛd ˈut͡sabnʲikɔm]}} "in front of the teacher"
* {{lang|dsb|na drogowanju}} {{IPA|[na ˈdrɔɡowanʲu]}} "on a journey"