Editing Luanda (section)

==History==
{{see also|Timeline of Luanda}}

===Portuguese colonization===
{{see also|Portuguese Angola|Colonial history of Angola}}
[[File:Museu Nacional de Historia Militar.jpg|left|thumb|[[Fortress of São Miguel|São Miguel Fortress]], founded in 1576 by [[Paulo Dias de Novais]], today hosts the [[Museum of the Armed Forces (Angola)|Armed Forces Museum]].]]
[[File:Cidade de São Paulo da Assumpção de Loanda.jpg|thumb|left|Depiction of ''São Paulo da Assunção de Luanda'', 1755.]]
[[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorer [[Paulo Dias de Novais]] founded Luanda on 25 January 1576<ref>{{Cite web|last=Leitão|first=José|title=A Missão no Reino de Angola|url=https://repositorio.ucp.pt/bitstream/10400.14/4910/1/LS_S2_05_JoseADLeitao.pdf|access-date=2020-12-07|archive-date=2021-01-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131222233/https://repositorio.ucp.pt/bitstream/10400.14/4910/1/LS_S2_05_JoseADLeitao.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> as "São Paulo da Assumpção de Loanda". He had brought one hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. Most of the Portuguese community lived within the fort.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} Several sources from as early as the 17th century called the city "St. Paul de Leonda".<ref name="IT">{{cite web | title=Carta particolare che comincia con l'Isola di S:Tomaso ò Tome è c:d'S:Clara è finisce con il c:d'Aldeas: la longitudine comincia da i'isola di Pico d'Asores di Europa Carta VIII. Lº6º | website=am.uc.pt | url=https://almamater.uc.pt/bib-geral/nabaisconde/item/44369 | access-date=2024-08-30}}</ref><ref name="NZ">{{cite web | publisher=National Library of New Zealand | title=BY ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. (FROM OUR OWN CORRESPONDENT.) | website=Papers Past | url=https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/NOT18670409.2.10 | access-date=2024-08-30}}</ref><ref name="UK">{{cite web | title=Daily British Columbian | website=UBC Library Open Collections | url=https://open.library.ubc.ca/viewer/dbc/1.0346007#p0z-1r0f:leonda | access-date=2024-08-30}}</ref>

In 1618, the Portuguese built the fortress called ''Fortaleza São Pedro da Barra'', and they subsequently built two more: [[Fortaleza de São Miguel]] (1634) and [[Fortress of Sao Francisco do Penedo|Forte de São Francisco do Penedo]] (1765–66). Of these, the Fortaleza de São Miguel is the best preserved.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.colonialvoyage.com/remainP.html |title=Portuguese Colonial Remains |publisher=Colonialvoyage.com |access-date=2011-04-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225142326/http://www.colonialvoyage.com/remainP.html |archive-date=2010-12-25 }}</ref>

Luanda was Portugal's bridgehead from 1627, except during the [[Dutch Loango-Angola|Dutch rule of Luanda]], from 1640 to 1648, as Fort Aardenburgh. The city served as the centre of [[Slavery in Angola|slave trade]] to [[Colonial Brazil|Brazil]] from {{circa|1550}} to 1836.<ref>See Joseph Miller, ''Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade'', London & Madison/Wis, : James Currey & University of Wisconsin Press, 1988</ref> The slave trade was conducted mostly with the Portuguese colony of Brazil; Brazilian ships were the most numerous in the port of Luanda. This slave trade also involved local merchants and warriors who profited from the trade.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=13661080113274 |title=João C. Curto. Álcool e Escravos: O Comércio Luso-Brasileiro do Álcool em Mpinda, Luanda e Benguela durante o Tráfico Atlântico de Escravos (c. 1480-1830) e o Seu Impacto nas Sociedades da África Central Ocidental. Translated by Márcia Lameirinhas. Tempos e Espaços Africanos Series, vol. 3. Lisbon: Editora Vulgata |isbn=978-972-8427-24-5 |publisher=H-net.org |year=2002 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050122054905/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=13661080113274 |archive-date=2005-01-22 |access-date=2009-05-14 }}</ref> During this period, no large scale territorial conquest was intended by the Portuguese; only a few minor settlements were established in the immediate hinterland of Luanda, some on the last stretch of the [[Kwanza River]].

In the 17th century, the [[Imbangala]] became the main rivals of the [[Northern Mbundu people|Mbundu]] in supplying slaves to the Luanda market. In the 1751, between 5,000 and 10,000 slaves were annually sold.<ref name=a>{{cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|year=1997|title=Mbundu|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|url-access=registration|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/38 38–39]|publisher=Rosen Pub. |isbn=9780823920044 }}</ref> By this time, Angola, a Portuguese colony, was in fact like a colony of Brazil, paradoxically another Portuguese colony. A strong degree of Brazilian influence was noted in Luanda until the [[Independence of Brazil]] in 1822.

In the 19th century, still under Portuguese rule, Luanda experienced a major economic revolution. The [[Atlantic slave trade|slave trade]] was abolished in 1836, and in 1844, Angola's ports were opened to foreign shipping. By 1850, Luanda was one of the greatest and most developed Portuguese cities in the vast [[Portuguese Empire]] outside [[Continental Portugal]], full of trading companies, exporting (together with [[Benguela]]) [[palm oil|palm]] and [[peanut oil]], wax, [[copal]], timber, ivory, cotton, coffee, and [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]], among many other products. Maize, tobacco, [[jerky|dried meat]], and [[cassava|cassava flour]] are also produced locally. The Angolan bourgeoisie was born by this time.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Angola Embassy in Cairo|url=https://www.angolaeg.net/|website=www.angolaeg.net|access-date=2020-05-28|archive-date=2021-06-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604225442/https://www.angolaeg.net/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1889, Governor [[Hermenegildo Capelo|Brito Capelo]] opened the gates of an aqueduct which supplied the city with water, a formerly scarce resource, laying the foundation for major growth.

===Estado Novo===
[[File:Luanda,desfilemilitar (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Portuguese Armed Forces]] marching in Luanda during the [[Portuguese Colonial War]]s (1961–74).]]
{{main|Estado Novo (Portugal)}}
Throughout Portugal's dictatorship, known as the [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]], Luanda grew from a town of 61,208 with 14.6% of those inhabitants being white in 1940, to a wealthy cosmopolitan major city of 475,328 in 1970 with 124,814 Europeans (26.3%) and around 50,000 mixed race inhabitants (10.5%).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RsD7bjz6ILY|title=Angola antes da Guerra (Parte 2)|last=angolaPT|date=3 December 2008|access-date=12 September 2017|via=YouTube|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519222311/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RsD7bjz6ILY|archive-date=19 May 2016}}</ref>

Like most of [[Portuguese Angola]], the [[wiktionary:Cosmopolitan|cosmopolitan]]<ref name="sister">{{cite web |url=http://www.pbh.gov.br/bh-internacional/bhz-acordos_irmas.htm |title=Mayor's International Council Sister Cities Program |publisher=Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais|access-date = 2008-08-18 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071223020811/http://www.pbh.gov.br/bh-internacional/bhz-acordos_irmas.htm |archive-date = 2007-12-23}}</ref> city of Luanda was not affected by the [[Portuguese Colonial War]] (1961–1974); economic growth and development in the entire region reached record highs during this period. In 1982, a report called Luanda the "Paris of Africa".{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

===Independence===
{{main|Angolan War of Independence|Portuguese Colonial War|Angolan Civil War}}
[[File:Luanda - Angola (6276460346).jpg|thumb|left|President [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] with President of Brazil [[Dilma Rousseff]] at the Presidential Palace in 2011.]]
By the time of [[Angolan War of Independence|Angolan independence]] in 1975, Luanda was a modern city with the majority of its population being African, but also dominated by a strong minority of white Portuguese origin.{{Citation needed|date=April 2015}}

After the [[Carnation Revolution]] in Lisbon on April 25, 1974, with the advent of independence and the start of the [[Angolan Civil War]] (1975–2002), most of the white Portuguese Luandans left as refugees,<ref name=":0">[http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12079340 Flight from Angola] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723131954/http://www.economist.com/node/12079340?story_id=12079340 |date=2013-07-23 }}, [[The Economist]] (August 16, 1975).</ref> principally for Portugal, however many travelled over land to [[South Africa]].
[[File:Porto de Luanda - Angola 2015.jpg|thumb|right|Luanda is experiencing widespread urban renewal and redevelopment in the 21st century, backed largely by profits from oil and diamond industries.]]
The large numbers of skilled technicians among the force of [[Cuba]]n soldiers sent in to support the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola ([[MPLA]]) government in the Angolan Civil War were able to make a valuable contribution to restoring and maintaining basic services in the city.

In the following years, however, slums called ''[[musseques]]''—which had existed for decades—began to grow out of proportion and stretched several kilometres beyond Luanda's former city limits as a result of the decades-long civil war, and because of the rise of deep social inequalities due to large-scale migration of civil war refugees from other Angolan regions. For decades, Luanda's facilities were not adequately expanded to handle this huge increase in the city's population.

===21st century===
[[File:National Assembly Building (19898889148).jpg|thumb|right|The [[National Assembly of Angola]]]]
In 2001 the provisional Angolan governments cleared the Boavista slum in [[Luanda Bay]] so that a luxury housing redevelopment was possible.<ref>{{cite book |title=Planet of Slums |publisher=Verso |author1=Mike Davis |isbn=9781844671601 |date=2007 |page=103 }}</ref> Luanda has since become one of the world's most expensive cities.<ref name="ft">{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/505424e6-1455-11e5-9bc5-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3d7FKVaI7 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210201209/https://www.ft.com/content/505424e6-1455-11e5-9bc5-00144feabdc0#axzz3d7FKVaI7 |archive-date=2022-12-10 |url-access=subscription |title=Tokyo falls out of top 10 most expensive cities - FT.com |newspaper=Financial Times |date=16 June 2015 |publisher=ft.com |access-date=2016-02-07 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Following the [[Luanda Agreement]] in 2002, with the end of the [[Angolan Civil War]] and high economic growth rates fuelled by the wealth provided by the increasing oil and diamond production, major reconstruction started.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/node/12009946?story_id=12009946 The Economist: Marching towards riches and democracy?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920042156/http://www.economist.com/node/12009946?story_id=12009946 |date=2011-09-20 }} August 28, 2008</ref> Luanda has been of major concern because its population had multiplied and had far outgrown the capacity of the city, especially because much of its infrastructure including water, electricity, and roads had become obsolete and degraded.

Luanda has been undergoing major road reconstruction in the 21st century, and new highways are planned to improve connections to [[Cacuaco]], [[Viana, Angola|Viana]], [[Samba, Luanda|Samba]], and the new airport.<ref name="otal.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.otal.com/angola/ |title=OT Africa Line - Angola |publisher=Otal.com |date=2004-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618063941/http://www.otal.com/angola/ |archive-date=2009-06-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Major [[social housing]] is also being constructed to house those who reside in slums, which dominate the landscape of Luanda. A large Chinese firm has been given a contract to construct the majority of replacement housing in Luanda.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinainternationalfund.com/projects1.asp?Id=287 |title=China International Fund Limited |publisher=Chinainternationalfund.com |access-date=2010-06-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618232837/http://www.chinainternationalfund.com/projects1.asp?Id=287 |archive-date=2009-06-18 }}</ref> The Angolan minister of health recently stated poverty in Angola will be overcome by an increase in jobs and the housing of every citizen.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.portalangop.co.ao/motix/pt_pt/noticias/economia/Pobreza-sera-combatida-com-emprego-habitacoes-sociais-diz-ministro-adjunto,d4542ae2-820b-4c6b-bdee-85dc280983b5.html |title=Angola Press - Economia - Pobreza será combatida com emprego e habitações sociais, diz ministro-adjunto do PM |publisher=Portalangop.co.ao |date=2010-05-25 |access-date=2010-06-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110125155231/http://www.portalangop.co.ao/motix/pt_pt/noticias/economia/Pobreza-sera-combatida-com-emprego-habitacoes-sociais-diz-ministro-adjunto,d4542ae2-820b-4c6b-bdee-85dc280983b5.html |archive-date=2011-01-25 }}</ref>