Editing Massachusett language (section)

==Classification==
===Position of Massachusett within the Algic languages===
{{clade
|label1=[[Algic languages]]
|1={{clade
|    1=[[Yurok language|Yurok (Puliklah) language]] (revived)
|    2=[[Wiyot language|Wiyot (Wishosk) language]] (†)
|    label3=[[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]]
|    3={{clade
|       1=[[Plains Algonquian languages|Plains Algonquian]]
|       2=[[Central Algonquian languages|Central Algonquian]]
|  label3=[[Eastern Algonquian languages|Eastern Algonquian]]
|       3={{clade
|           1=[[Abenaki language|Abenakian]] 
|      label2=Southern New England Algonquian
|           2={{clade
|               1='''Massachusett language (revived)'''
|               2=[[Narragansett language]] (†)
|               3=[[Loup language|Nipmuc language]] (†)<ref name="Gust">Gustuffson, H. S. (2000). A grammar of the nipmuc language. (Master's thesis) University of Manitoba. The Nipmuck are currently reviving the Nipmuc-influenced Natick dialect. See White, D. T. P. (Performer/Language Consultant). (2009. April, 13). We shall remain: after the mayflower [Television series episode]. In (Executive producer), The American Experience. Boston: PBS-WGBH.</ref>
|               4=[[Quiripi language|Quiripi-Naugatuck-Unquachog language]] (†)
|               5=[[Mohegan-Pequot language|Mohegan-Pequot-Montauk language]] (†)
              }}
|           3=[[Delaware languages]]
|           4=[[Nanticoke language]] (†)
|           5=[[Powhatan language|Powhatan]] (†)
|           6=[[Pamlico|Carolina Algonquian]] (†)
          }}
       }}
   }}
}}

Massachusett is in the [[Eastern Algonquian languages|Eastern]] branch of [[Algonquian languages]], which comprises all the known Algonquian languages spoken from the [[The Maritimes|Canadian Maritimes]] southward to the Carolinas. Within the Eastern divisions, Massachusett clusters with the Southern New England Algonquian (SNEA) languages. If considered a dialect of SNEA, it is an SNEA 'N-dialect.' Other Eastern language divisions include the Abenakian languages spoken to the immediate north and the Delawaran languages to the west and southwest of the SNEA region. South of the Delawaran languages are the Nanticokan languages of the Chesapeake Bay and Potomac River watershed, the Powhatan languages of coastal Virginia and the Carolina Algonquian languages of the Carolinas. The Eastern languages are the only genetic grouping to have emerged from Algonquian, as all the languages descend from Proto-Eastern Algonquian (PEA), which differentiated likely due to isolation from other Algonquian speakers due to the presence of large pockets of [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian]] and [[Siouan languages|Siouan]] languages and the [[Appalachian Mountains]]. The [[Central Algonquian languages|Central]] and [[Plains Algonquian languages|Plains]], however, are groupings based on areal features and geographical proximity.

===Relationship within SNEA===
The SNEA languages were all mutually intelligible to some extent, existing in a [[dialect continuum|dialect chain]] or [[Linkage (linguistics)|linkage]], with the boundaries between quite distinct dialects blurred by a series of transitional varieties. All the SNEA languages, including Massachusett, can be differentiated from other Eastern branch languages by several shared innovations including the merger of PEA *''hr'' and *''hx'' into *''hš'', palatization of PEA *''k'' to SNEA *''t<sup>y</sup>'' where it occurs after PEA *''ē'' and some instances of PA *''i'', palatization of PEA *''sk'' in similar environments to *''hč'' and word-final PEA *''r'' merging into *''š''.<ref>Costa, D. J. (2007). pp. 84-101.</ref>

Within SNEA, Massachusett shares the most similarity to Narragansett and Nipmuc, its immediate neighbors, with a handful of lexical items indicating an east-west division. For example, the word 'fish' is {{lang|alg|namohs}} ({{lang|wam|namâhs}}) in Massachusett, {{lang|xlo|namens}} In Nipmuc and Narragansett {{lang|alg|namaùs}}, all likely pronounced similarly to {{IPA|/namaːhs/}} from Proto-Algonquian *{{lang|alg|nameᐧʔsa}}, contrasting with Mohegan-Pequot {{lang|xpq|piyamáq}} and Quiripi {{lang|qyp|opéramac}} which derives from a local stem *{{lang|alg|pere-}} and an ancient alternative stem for 'fish,' *{{lang|alg|-aᐧmeᐧkwa}}, likely Proto-Western SNEA *{{lang|alg|pīramākw}} {{IPA|/piːramaːkʷ/}}. Although Nipmuc is close to Massachusett, it is conservative in that it retains more noun and verb finals that are truncated in most environments in other SNEA languages.<ref>Costa, D. J. (2007). pp. 103-106.</ref>

====N-dialect====
The most defining feature of Massachusett in comparison to other SNEA languages is the outcome of {{IPA|/n/}} in reflexes of PEA *''r'', itself a merger of Proto-Algonquian *''r'' and *''θ''. Massachusett and its dialects always have {{IPA|/n/}} and thus its classification as an SNEA N-dialect. This becomes {{IPA|/j/}} in the Y-dialects of Narragansett, Eastern and Western Niantic and Mohegan-Pequot, {{IPA|/r/}} in the R-dialects of Quiripi and {{IPA|/l/}} in the L-dialect Nipmuc language.<ref>Costa, D. J. (2007). pp. 91-96.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Reflexes of PEA *''r'' in SNEA
|-
! Proto-Algonquian
! Massachusett<br/>N-dialect /n/
! Narragansett<br/>Y-dialect /j/
! Nipmuc<br/>L-dialect /l/
! Mohegan-Pequot<br/>Y-dialect /j/
! Quiripi<br/>R-dialect /r/
! English
|-
| *{{lang|alg|a<u>θ</u>emwa}}
| {{lang|alg|a<u>nn</u>um}}<br/>({{lang|wam|a<u>n</u>um}})<br/>{{IPA|/a<u>n</u>əm/}}
| {{lang|xnt|a<u>y</u>imp}}<br/>{{IPA|/a<u>j</u>əm/}}
| {{lang|alg|a<u>l</u>um}}<br/>{{IPA|/a<u>l</u>əm/}}
| {{lang|xpq|a<u>y</u>umohs}}<br/>{{IPA|/a<u>j</u>əmuːhs/}}{{ref|dog|1}}
| {{lang|qyp|a<u>r</u>um}}<br/>{{IPA|/a<u>r</u>əm/}}
| dog
|-
| *{{lang|alg|a<u>θ</u>ankwa}}
| {{lang|alg|a<u>n</u>ogqus}}<br/>({{lang|wam|a<u>n</u>ôqees}})<br/>{{IPA|/a<u>n</u>ãkʷiːs/}}
| {{lang|xnt|a<u>n</u>óckqus}}{{ref|coweset|2}}
| {{lang|xlo|a<u>l</u>ag8s}}<br/>{{IPA|/a<u>l</u>ãkʷs/}}
| {{lang|xpq|a<u>y</u>ôqs}}<br/>{{IPA|/a<u>j</u>ãkʷs/}}
| {{lang|qyp|a<u>rr</u>áks}}<br/>{{IPA|/a<u>r</u>ãkʷs/}}
| star
|-
| *{{lang|alg|<u>r</u>ōtēw}} (PEA)
| {{lang|alg|<u>n</u>ꝏht}}<br/>({{lang|wam|<u>n</u>8ht}})<br/>{{IPA|/<u>n</u>uːht/}}
| {{lang|xnt|<u>y</u>òte}}<br/>{{IPA|/<u>j</u>uːht/}} 
| {{lang|xlo|<u>l</u>8te}}<br/>{{IPA|/<u>l</u>uːht/}}
| {{lang|xpq|<u>y</u>oht}}<br/>{{IPA|/<u>j</u>uːht/}}
| {{lang|qyp|<u>r</u>uht}}<br/>{{IPA|/<u>r</u>uːht/}}
| fire 
|}
{{note|dog|1}} Only appears with diminutive as 'puppy,' more common word is {{lang|alg|náhtiá}}.<br/>
{{note|coweset|2}} Possibly Williams' recording of the Coweset dialect.

====Lack of syncope====
'Abenakian syncope' was an areal feature that had spread from the Abenakian languages to [[Mahican language|Mahican]], a Delawarean language, and was beginning to spread into SNEA during the early colonial period. The feature was obligatory in the Quiripi, Unquachoag, Montauk, Mohegan and Pequot dialects of the Long Island sound, frequent in Nipmuc and mostly absent in Massachusett and Narragansett. For example the 'Fox Sachem' of the Pequot was known to late-stage speakers as {{lang|xpq|[[Uncas|Wôqs]]}} {{IPA|/wãkʷs/}} whereas the English name 'Uncas' likely preserves an older dialectal and pre-syncopated stage pronunciation of {{IPA|/[w]ãkʷəhs/}}, cf. Massachusett {{lang|alg|wonquiss}} ({{lang|wam|wôquhs}}) {{IPA|/wãkʷəhs/}}, indicating that the transition was not complete in New England when the English colonists arrived. When it appears in Massachusett documents, it seems to be indicative of dialectal features or in forced situations, such as sung versions of the Massachusett translations of the ''[[Psalms|Psalms of David]]'' in the ''Massachusee Psalter.''<ref name="Costa, D. J. 2007. pp. 96-99">Costa, D. J. (2007). pp. 96–99.</ref>

In dialects that permitted syncopation, it generally involved the deletion of {{IPA|/ə/}}, {{IPA|/a/}} and occasionally {{IPA|/iː/}}, usually at the end of a word, after a long vowel, or metrical factors such as the Algonquian stress rules which deleted these vowels in weakly stressed positions. In Massachusett, there are some syncopated forms such as {{lang|alg|kuts}} {{IPA|/kəts/}}, '[[cormorant]],' and {{lang|alg|ꝏsqheonk}} {{IPA|/wəskʷhjᵊãk/}}, 'his/her blood,' but these are rare instances compared to the more common {{lang|alg|kuttis}} ({{lang|wam|kutuhs}}) {{IPA|/kətəhs/}} and {{lang|alg|wusqueheonk}} ({{lang|wam|wusqeeheôk}}) {{IPA|/wəskʷiːhjᵊãk/}}, respectively, that also appear in Eliot's translations. Although a clear dialectal feature, unfortunately, the majority of documents are of unknown authorship and geographic origin.<ref name="Costa, D. J. 2007. pp. 96-99"/>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Abenaki-influenced vowel syncope in SNEA
|-
! English
! Massachusett
! Narragansett
! Nipmuc
! Mohegan-Pequot
! Quiripi
|-
| [[Manitou|God]]
| {{lang|alg|man<u>i</u>tt}}<br/>{{lang|alg|man<u>u</u>t}}<br/>{{IPA|/man<u>ə</u>t/}}
| {{lang|xnt|man<u>ì</u>t}}<br/>{{IPA|/man<u>ə</u>t/}}
| {{lang|xlo|man<u>e</u>t8}}<br/>{{IPA|/man<u>ə</u>tuː/}}
| {{lang|xpq|manto}}<br/>{{IPA|/man[∅]tuː/}}
| {{lang|alg|mando}}<br/>{{IPA|/man[∅]tuː/}}
|-
| gun
| {{lang|alg|pask<u>eh</u>heeg}}<br/>{{lang|alg|pôsk<u>u</u>heek}}<br/>{{IPA|/pãsk<u>ə</u>hiːk/}}
|
| {{lang|xlo|paskig}}<br/>{{IPA|/pãsk[∅]hiːk/}}

| {{lang|xpq|páskhik}}<br/>{{IPA|/pãsk[∅]hiːk/}}
| {{lang|alg|boshkeag}}<br/>{{IPA|/pãsk[∅]hiːk/}}
|-
| sea 
| {{lang|alg|keht<u>uh</u>han}}<br/>{{lang|alg|kuht<u>a</u>han}}<br/>{{IPA|/kəht<u>a</u>han/}}
| {{lang|xnt|kitthan}}<br/>{{IPA|/kəht[∅]han/}}
|
| {{lang|xpq|kuhthan}}<br/>{{IPA|/kəht[∅]han/}}
| {{lang|alg|kut-hún}}<br/>{{IPA|/kəht[∅]han/}}
|}

====Locative {{IPA|/-ət/}} vs. {{IPA|/-ək/}}====
The locative suffix, as in 'Massachus<u>ett</u>' with {{IPA|/-ət/}} prevails in a three-to-one ratio over the older {{IPA|/-ək/}} variant in the Massachusett-language documents, indicating it was a dialectal feature. In place names of Algonquian origin in Massachusetts, the Massachusett innovation covers most of the Massachusett, Pawtucket, Wampanoag and Coweset areas and also seems to have spread into Narragansett and Nipmuc. However, the Nantucket and Nauset were historically {{IPA|/-ək/}}, as were many dialects of Nipmuc and likely in Narragansett, although it is also very likely to have been interchangeable in some dialects. The majority of the people of Nati<u>ck</u> also mainly used the older variant despite Eliot using the alternate form in his translations. This may be explained by the fact that the original settlers of Natick were Massachusett people from Neponse<u>t</u>, but after King Philip's War, the community attracted many Nipmuc whose dialects generally prefer {{IPA|/-ək/}}.<ref name="Costa, D. J. 2007. p. 100">Costa, D. J. (2007). p. 100.</ref>

As Eliot employed the {{IPA|/-ət/}} form in his translations, this form spread as the 'standard' in writing. Many instances seem to have been standardized by colonial mapmakers and Indian translators themselves. For instance, the colonists referred to a hill that once existed as Hassunek or Hassunet Hill, but the name survives today as Assone<u>t</u> Street in Worcester. Similarly, Asnacome<u>t</u> Pond, in a formerly Nipmuc-language area, was recorded as 'Asacancomi<u>c</u> in the older colonial sources.<ref name="Costa, D. J. 2007. p. 100"/><ref name="Huden">Huden, J. C. (1962). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJIq5MD7xRUC ''Indian place names of new england.''] (pp. 15–385). New York, NY: Museum of the American Indian, Heyes Foundation.</ref><ref name="Nipmuc">Nipmuc placenames of new england. (1995). [http://www.nativetech.org/Nipmuc/placenames/mainmass.html Historical Series I ed. #III]. Thompson, CT: Nipmuc Indian Association of Connecticut.</ref> This 'correction' stops at the Connecticut River, as most place names from areas associated with Mahican, such as Hoos<u>ic</u>, Housaton<u>ic</u>, Mahkeen<u>ak</u>, Quass<u>uck</u> and Mananos<u>ick</u> and Pocomtuc examples such as Podat<u>uck</u>, Pocumt<u>uck</u>, Suns<u>ick</u>, Norwott<u>uck</u> and Pachass<u>ic</u> noticeably lack this feature.<ref name="Huden"/><ref name="Nipmuc"/> Nevertheless, because of the wide dialectal variation, the {{IPA|/-ət/}} alone is not diagnostic of Massachusett.<ref name="Costa, D. J. 2007. p. 100"/>

===Names===
====Endonyms====
The traditional method of referring to the language was simply {{lang|alg|hettꝏonk}}<ref>Trumbull, J. H. (1903). p. 27.</ref> ({{lang|wam|hutuwôk}}) {{IPA|/hətəwãk/|lang=wam}}, 'that which they [can] speak to each other'<ref>Hicks, N. (2006). [http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/37422 A list of initials and finals in wôpanâak]. (Master's thesis). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. p. 41. From ({{lang|und|uhutu-}}), 'to speak together' and ({{lang|und|-ôk}}) [nominalizing suffix].</ref> Dialects or languages that were harder to understand were {{lang|alg|siogontꝏwaonk}}<ref name="TJH">Trumbull, J. H. (1903). pp. 173, 285.</ref> ({{lang|wam|sayakôtuwâôk}}) {{IPA|/sajakãtəwaːãk/|lang=wam}},<ref>Hicks, N. (2006). p. 37. From {{lang|und|sayak-}}, 'difficult' and ({{lang|und|-ôntuwâôk}}), 'language.'</ref> 'difficult language', contrasting with {{lang|alg|penꝏwantꝏaog}}<ref name="TJH"/> ({{lang|wam|peen8wôtuwâôk}}) {{IPA|/piːnuːwãtəwaːãk/|lang=wam}},<ref>Hicks, N. (2006). p. 31. From ({{lang|und|peen8w-}}), 'strange.'</ref>'foreign' or 'strange language.'

When needed to refer to specific people or places, the name of the people or place was followed by {{lang|alg|unnontꝏwaog}}<ref name="TJH"/> ({{lang|wam|unôtuwâôk}}) {{IPA|/ənãtəwaːãk/}}<ref>Hicks, N. (2006). From ({{lang|und|unun}}), 'person,' and ({{lang|und|ôtuwâ}}), 'to speak,' and ({{lang|und|-ôk}}), a nominalizing suffix.</ref> to indicate 'its people's language' or 'that which the people speak'.<ref name="TJH"/> In the colonial period, the language was generally known as {{lang|alg|Massachusett unnontꝏwaonk}} ({{lang|alg|Muhsachuweesut unôtuwâôk}}) {{IPA|/məhsatʃəwiːsət ənãtəwaːãk/|lang=alg}}, 'language of the Massachusett (region)' or {{lang|alg|Massachusee unnontꝏwaonk}} ({{lang|alg|Muhsachuweesee unôtuwâôk}}) {{IPA|/məhsatʃəwiːsiː ənãtəwaːãk/|lang=alg}}, 'language of the Massachusett (people).' {{lang|alg|Massachusee}} was the correct short form in traditional Massachusett usage to refer to the people and the language, despite the adoption of ''Massachusett'' in English, hence the translation of the ''Massachusett Psalter'' as {{lang|alg|Massachusee Psalter}}.<ref name="Fun">Baird, J. L. D. (2014). 'Fun with Words.' WLRP.</ref> The people and language take their name from the sacred hill, known in English as [[Great Blue Hill]]. The name derives from {{lang|alg|missi-}}<ref>Trumbull, J. H. (1903). pp. 58, 270.</ref> ({{lang|alg|muhs-}}),<ref name="Fun"/><ref>Hicks. N. (2006). p. 20. From {{lang|alg|muhs-}}, 'great.'</ref> 'big,' 'sacred,' or 'great,' {{lang|alg|[w]achuwees}} ({{lang|wam|[w]achuwees}}) {{IPA|/[w]atʃəw[iː]s/|lang=wam}}, 'hill' (literally 'small mountain') and the locative suffix {{lang|alg|-ett}} ({{lang|alg|-ut}}). The syncopation of the diminutive ({{lang|wam|-ees}}) to {{lang|alg|-s}} was common in dialects and rapid or relaxed speech, thus the colonial form {{lang|alg|wachus}} as opposed to careful Massachusett ({{lang|wam|wachuwees}}).

The Wampanoag tribes affiliated with the WLRP refer to the language as ({{lang|wam|Wôpanâôtuwâôk}}), possibly back-rendered into the colonial spelling as {{lang|alg|Wampanaontꝏwaonk}}, 'Wampanoag language' to refer not only to the varieties used historically by the Wampanoag people, but also to the Massachusett language as a whole. The name derives from {{lang|alg|wampan-}}<ref>Trumbull, J. H. (1903). pp. 250, 269.</ref> ({{lang|alg|wôpan-}}),<ref name="Hicks, N. 2006. p. 45">Hicks, N. (2006). p. 45.</ref> 'east' or 'dawn,' and thus signifies 'language of the easterners' or 'language of the people of the dawn.' Modern speakers of the revived dialect shorten this to ({{lang|alg|Wôpanâak}}) (Wampanoag), even though this technically refers only to the people.<ref name="Project History"/>

====Exonyms====
The English settlers of the Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies initially referred to Massachusett as the ''Indian language'', at first because they were unaware of the ethnic and linguistic boundaries between peoples. ''Massachusett'' was adopted as a general term, although due to the influence of the Indian mission and the success of the Praying Town of Natick, ''Natick'' also was a common reference to the language, especially in written form. In the Plymouth Colony, both ''Massachusett'' and ''Wampanoag'', especially since the colony covered most of their traditional territory, were in general use. These three terms remain the most common way of referring to the language in English today, supplanting older colonial names such as ''Nonantum'', ''Pokanoket'' or ''Aberginian''.

In more technical contexts, Massachusett is often known by names referring to its pan-ethnic usage, such as ''Massachusett-Wampanoag'', ''Wampanoag-Massachusett'', ''Massachusett-Coweset'' or ''Massachusett-Narragansett'', although the majority of linguists consider Narragansett a separate albeit closely related language.<ref name="ew">Costa, D. J. (2007). p. 108.</ref> Due to the heavy scholarly, cultural and media attention surrounding the revival of the language under the Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project of Jessie Little Doe Baird, and also because the Wampanoag far outnumber Massachusett people, the use of 'Wampanoag' or its revived form 'Wôpanâak' to refer to the entire language is increasing.<ref name="Project History"/><ref name="ew"/>