Editing Max Weber (section)

==Biography==
===Early life and education===
Maximilian Carl Emil Weber was born on 21 April 1864 in [[Erfurt]], Province of Saxony, Kingdom of Prussia, and his family moved to Berlin in 1869.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=22, 144–145|2a1=Kim|2y=2022|3a1=Radkau|3y=2009|3p=5}} He was the oldest of [[Max Weber Sr.]] and Helene Fallenstein's eight children.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaelber|1y=2003|1p=38|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2p=11|3a1=Kaesler|3y=2014|3pp=148–149}} Over the course of his life, Weber Sr. held posts as a lawyer, civil servant, and parliamentarian for the [[National Liberal Party (Germany)|National Liberal Party]] in the [[Landtag of Prussia|Prussian Landtag]] and [[Reichstag (German Empire)|German Reichstag]].{{sfnm|1a1=Kaelber|1y=2003|1p=38|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2p=5|3a1=Honigsheim|3y=2017|3p=100}} His involvement in public life immersed his home in both politics and academia, as his [[Salon (gathering)|salon]] welcomed scholars and public figures such as the philosopher [[Wilhelm Dilthey]], the jurist [[Levin Goldschmidt]], and the historian [[Theodor Mommsen]]. The young Weber and his brother [[Alfred Weber|Alfred]], who also became a sociologist, passed their formative years in this intellectual atmosphere.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=1988|1pp=2–3, 14|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=91–92}} Meanwhile, Fallenstein was partly descended from the French [[Huguenots|Huguenot]] {{Interlanguage link|Souchay family|de|Souchay (Familie)}}, which had obtained wealth through international commerce and the [[textile industry]].{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=68, 129–137|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2p=9|3a1=Kim|3y=2022}} Over time, Weber was affected by the marital and personality tensions between his father, who enjoyed material pleasures while overlooking religious and [[philanthropy|philanthropic]] causes, and his mother, a devout [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] and philanthropist.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=54, 62|2a1=Kaelber|2y=2003|2pp=38–39|3a1=Ritzer|3y=2009|3p=32}}

[[File:Max Weber and brothers 1879.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Max Weber (left) and his brothers, [[Alfred Weber|Alfred]] (center) and Karl (right), in 1879|alt=A group photograph of Max Weber with his brothers Alfred and Karl]]

Weber entered the {{Lang|de|Doebbelinsche Privatschule}} in [[Charlottenburg]] in 1870, before attending the {{Lang|de|[[Kaiserin-Augusta-Gymnasium]]}} between 1872 and 1882.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=176–178|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2p=561}} While in class, bored and unimpressed with his teachers, Weber secretly read all forty volumes by the writer [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]].{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=1988|1p=2|2a1=McKinnon|2y=2010|2pp=110–112|3a1=Kent|3y=1983|3pp=297–303}} Goethe later exerted an important influence on his thought and methodology.{{sfnm|1a1=McKinnon|1y=2010|1pp=110–112|2a1=Kent|2y=1983|2pp=297–303}} Before entering university, he read many other classical works, including those by the philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]].{{sfn|Kaesler|1988|pp=2–3}} For Christmas in 1877, a thirteen-year-old Weber gifted his parents two historical essays, entitled "About the Course of German History, with Special Reference to the Positions of the Emperor and the Pope" and "About the Roman Imperial Period from Constantine to the Migration Period". Two years later, also during Christmastime, he wrote another historical essay, "Observations on the Ethnic Character, Development, and History of the Indo-European Nations". These three essays were non-derivative contributions to the [[philosophy of history]] and were derived from Weber's reading of "numerous sources".{{sfnm|1a1=Sica|1y=2017|1p=24|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2p=180}}

In 1882, Weber enrolled in [[Heidelberg University]] as a law student, later studying at the [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Royal Friedrich Wilhelm University of Berlin]] and the [[University of Göttingen]].{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=31–33|2a1=Bendix|2a2=Roth|2y=1977|2pp=1–2}} He practiced law and worked as a lecturer simultaneously with his studies.{{sfnm|1a1=Berman|1a2=Reid|1y=2000|1pp=223–225|2a1=Allan|2y=2005|2p=146|3a1=Honigsheim|3y=2017|3p=101}} In 1886, Weber passed the [[Referendary|Referendar]] examination, which was comparable to the [[bar association]] examination in the British and U.S. legal systems. Throughout the late 1880s, he continued to study law and history.{{sfn|Kaelber|2003|pp=30–33}} Under the tutelage of Levin Goldschmidt and [[Rudolf von Gneist]], Weber earned his law doctorate in 1889 by writing a dissertation on legal history titled ''Development of the Principle of Joint Liability and a Separate Fund of the General Partnership out of the Household Communities and Commercial Associations in Italian Cities''. It was a part of a longer work, ''[[Zur Geschichte der Handelsgesellschaften im Mittelalter|On the History of Commercial Partnerships in the Middle Ages, Based on Southern European Documents]]'', which he published in the same year.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaelber|1y=2003|1p=33|2a1=Honigsheim|2y=2017|2p=239|3a1=Radkau|3y=2009|3p=563}} In the same year, Weber began working with the statistician [[August Meitzen]] to complete his [[Habilitation#Germany|habilitation]], a post-doctoral thesis, and completed it two years later. The dissertation, titled ''[[Roman Agrarian History and Its Significance for Public and Private Law]]'', focused on the relationship between Roman surveying and [[Agrarian law|Roman agrarian law]].{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=335–341|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=72–75, 563|3a1=Bendix|3a2=Roth|3y=1977|3pp=1–2}} Having thus become a {{Lang|de|[[Privatdozent]]}}, Weber joined the faculty of the Royal Friedrich Wilhelm University of Berlin, lecturing, conducting research, and consulting for the government.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1p=307|2a1=Honigsheim|2y=2017|2p=101}}

Weber's years as a university student were dotted with several periods of military service, the longest of which lasted between October 1883 and September 1884. During this time, he was in [[Strasbourg]] and attended classes at the [[University of Strasbourg]] that his uncle, the historian [[Hermann Baumgarten]], taught.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaelber|1y=2003|1p=30|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=562–564}} Weber befriended Baumgarten and he influenced [[Interpretations of Max Weber's liberalism|Weber's growing liberalism]] and criticism of [[Otto von Bismarck]]'s domination of German politics.{{sfnm|1a1=Mommsen|1a2=Steinberg|1y=1984|1pp=2–9|2a1=Kaelber|2y=2003|2p=36|3a1=Radkau|3y=2009|3p=23}} He was a member of the ''{{Interlanguage link|Burschenschaft Allemannia Heidelberg|de}}'', a {{Lang|de|[[Studentenverbindung]]}} ("student association"), and heavily drank beer and engaged in [[academic fencing]] during his first few years in university.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=31–33|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2pp=191, 200–202}} As a result of the latter, he obtained several [[dueling scar|duelling scar]]s on the left side of his face.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=191, 207|2a1=Gordon|2y=2020|2p=32|3a1=Radkau|3y=2009|3pp=32–33}} His mother was displeased by his behaviour and slapped him after he came home when his third semester ended in 1883. However, Weber matured, increasingly supported his mother in family arguments, and grew estranged from his father.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaelber|1y=2003|1p=39|2a1=Ritzer|2y=2009|2p=32|3a1=Gordon|3y=2020|3p=32}}

===Marriage, early work, and breakdown<!--Weber Circle redirects here-->===

[[File:Max and Marianne Weber 1894.jpg|thumb|upright|Max Weber and his wife Marianne in 1894|alt=Max Weber, right, and Marianne, left, in 1894]]

From 1887 until her declining mental health caused him to break off their relationship five years later, Weber had a relationship and semi-engagement with Emmy Baumgarten, the daughter of Hermann Baumgarten.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=39–40, 562|2a1=Kaelber|2y=2003|2pp=36–38}} Afterwards, he began a relationship with his distant cousin [[Marianne Weber|Marianne Schnitger]] in 1893 and married her on 20 September of that year.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1p=564|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2pp=329–332, 362}} The marriage gave Weber financial independence, allowing him to leave his parents' household.{{sfn|Kaelber|2003|pp=39–40}} They had no children.{{sfnm|1a1=Allan|1y=2005|1p=146|2a1=Frommer|2a2=Frommer|2y=1993|2p=165|3a1=Radkau|3y=2009|3p=45}} Marianne was a [[Feminist movement|feminist activist]] and an author in her own right.{{sfnm|1a1=Kim|1y=2022|2a1=Lengermann|2a2=Niebrugge-Brantley|2y=1998|2p=193|3a1=Frommer|3a2=Frommer|3y=1993|3p=165}} Academically, between the completion of his dissertation and habilitation, Weber took an interest in contemporary [[social policy]]. He joined the {{Lang|de|[[Verein für Socialpolitik]]}} ("Association for Social Policy") in 1888.{{sfnm|1a1=Poggi|1y=2006|1p=5|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2p=270|3a1=Radkau|3y=2009|3p=563}} The {{Lang|de|Verein}} was an organisation of reformist thinkers who were generally members of the [[historical school of economics]].{{sfn|Swedberg|Agevall|2016|pp=370–371}} He also involved himself in politics, participating in the founding of the left-leaning [[Evangelical Social Congress]] in 1890. It applied a [[Protestant]] perspective to the political debate regarding the [[social question]].{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1p=346|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2p=563}} In the same year, the {{Lang|de|Verein}} established a research program to examine the {{Lang|de|[[Ostflucht]]}}, which was the western migration of ethnically German agricultural labourers from [[East Elbia|eastern Germany]] and the corresponding influx of Polish farm workers into it. Weber was put in charge of the study and wrote a large part of the final report, which generated considerable attention and controversy, marking the beginning of his renown as a social scientist.{{sfnm|1a1=Kim|1y=2022|2a1=Poggi|2y=2006|2p=5|3a1=Radkau|3y=2009|3pp=79–82}}

From 1893 to 1899, Weber was a member of the [[Pan-German League]] ({{Langx|de|Alldeutscher Verband|label=none}}), an organisation that campaigned against the influx of Polish workers. The degree of his support for the [[Germanisation of Poles during the Partitions|Germanisation of Poles]] and similar nationalist policies continues to be debated by scholars.{{sfnm|1a1=Mommsen|1a2=Steinberg|1y=1984|1pp=54–56|2a1=Hobsbawm|2y=1987|2p=152|3a1=Radkau|3y=2009|3pp=564–565}} Weber and his wife moved to [[Freiburg im Breisgau|Freiburg]] in 1894, where he was appointed professor of economics at the [[University of Freiburg]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bendix|1a2=Roth|1y=1977|1pp=1–2|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2p=564|3a1=Honigsheim|3y=2017|3p=239}} During his tenure there, in 1895, he gave a provocative lecture titled "The Nation State and Economic Policy". In it, he criticised Polish immigration and argued that the [[Junker (Prussia)|Junker]]s were encouraging Slavic immigration to serve their economic interests over those of the German nation.{{sfnm|1a1=Aldenhoff-Hübinger|1y=2004|1p=148|2a1=Craig|2y=1988|2p=18|3a1=Mommsen|3a2=Steinberg|3y=1984|3pp=38–39}} It influenced the politician [[Friedrich Naumann]] to create the [[National-Social Association]], which was a [[Christian socialist]] and [[nationalist]] political organisation.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=429–431|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=134–135|3a1=Mommsen|3a2=Steinberg|3y=1984|3pp=123–126}} Weber was pessimistic regarding the association's ability to succeed, and it dissolved after winning a single seat in the Reichstag during the [[1903 German federal election]].{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=436–441|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=134–135, 330|3a1=Mommsen|3a2=Steinberg|3y=1984|3pp=126–130}} In 1896, he accepted an appointment to a chair in economics and finance at [[Heidelberg University]].{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1p=564|2a1=Bendix|2a2=Roth|2y=1977|2pp=1–2|3a1=Kaesler|3y=2014|3p=455}} There, Weber and his wife became the central figures in the eponymous '''Weber Circle'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->, which included [[Georg Jellinek]], [[Ernst Troeltsch]], and [[Werner Sombart]]. Younger scholars, such as [[György Lukács]] and [[Robert Michels]], also joined it.{{sfnm|1a1=Kim|1y=2022|2a1=Honigsheim|2y=2017|2pp=ix–x}}

In 1897, Weber had a severe quarrel with his father. Weber Sr. died two months later, leaving the argument unresolved.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=65–66|2a1=Kim|2y=2022|3a1=Weber|3y=1999|3p=7}} Afterwards, Weber became increasingly prone to depression, nervousness, and [[insomnia]], which made it difficult for him to fulfill his duties as a professor.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=65–69|2a1=Bendix|2a2=Roth|2y=1977|2pp=1–2|3a1=Frommer|3a2=Frommer|3y=1993|3pp=163–164}} His condition forced him to seek an exemption from his teaching obligations, which he was granted in 1899. He spent time in the {{Lang|de|Heilanstalt für Nervenkranke Konstanzer Hof}} in 1898 and in a different [[sanatorium]] in [[Bad Urach]] in 1900.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=472, 476–477|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2p=143}} Weber also travelled to [[Corsica]] and [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] between 1899 and 1903 in order to alleviate his illness.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1p=143|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2p=485|3a1=Bendix|3a2=Roth|3y=1977|3pp=2–3}} He fully withdrew from teaching in 1903 and did not return to it until 1918.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1p=143}} Weber thoroughly described his ordeal with mental illness in a personal [[chronology]] that his widow later destroyed. Its destruction was possibly caused by Marianne's fear that his work would have been discredited by the Nazis if his experience with mental illness were widely known.{{sfnm|1a1=Weber|1y=1964|1pp=641–642|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=170–171}}

===Later work===

[[File:Max Weber 1907.jpg|thumb|upright|Max Weber in 1907|alt=Max Weber in 1907, holding a hookah]]

After recovering from his illness, Weber accepted a position as an associate editor of the {{Lang|de|[[Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik]]}} (''Archive for Social Science and Social Policy'') in 1904, alongside his colleagues [[Edgar Jaffé]] and Werner Sombart. It facilitated his reintroduction to academia and became one of the most prominent social science journals as a result of his efforts.{{sfnm|1a1=Kim|1y=2022|2a1=Roth|2y=1976|2pp=306–318|3a1=Scott|3y=2019|3pp=21, 41}} Weber published some of his most seminal works in this journal, including his book ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]'', which became his most famous work and laid the foundations for his later research on the impact of religion on the development of economic systems.{{sfnm|1a1=Bendix|1a2=Roth|1y=1977|1pp=49–50|2a1=Weber|2y=1999|2p=8}} Also in 1904, he was invited to participate in the Congress of Arts and Sciences that was held in connection with the [[Louisiana Purchase Exposition]] in [[St. Louis]] alongside his wife, Werner Sombart, Ernst Troeltsch, and other German scholars.{{sfnm|1a1=Roth|1y=2005|1pp=82–83|2a1=Scaff|2y=2011|2pp=11–24|3a1=Smith|3y=2019|3p=96}} Taking advantage of the fair, the Webers embarked on a trip that began and ended in New York City and lasted for almost three months. They travelled throughout the country, from [[New England]] to the [[Deep South]]. Different communities were visited, including German immigrant towns and African American communities.{{sfnm|1a1=Scaff|1y=2011|1pp=11–24|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=296–299|3a1=Honigsheim|3y=2017|3pp=24–25}} [[North Carolina]] was also visited, as some of Weber's relatives in the Fallenstein family had settled there.{{sfnm|1a1=Scaff|1y=2011|1pp=117–119|2a1=Smith|2y=2019|2pp=96–97|3a1=Honigsheim|3y=2017|3pp=24–25}} Weber used the trip to learn more about America's social, economic, and theological conditions and how they related to his thesis.{{sfnm|1a1=Scaff|1y=2011|1pp=12–14|2a1=Roth|2y=2005|2pp=82–83|3a1=Smith|3y=2019|3pp=97–100}} Afterwards, he felt that he was unable to resume regular teaching and remained a private scholar, helped by an inheritance in 1907.{{sfnm|1a1=Bendix|1a2=Roth|1y=1977|1p=3|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=279–280, 566}}

Shortly after returning, Weber's attention shifted to the then-recent [[Russian Revolution of 1905]].{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1p=233|2a1=Weber|2y=1997|2pp=3–4|3a1=Turner|3y=2001b|3p=16401}} He learned the [[Russian language]] in a few months, subscribed to Russian newspapers, and discussed Russian political and social affairs with the Russian {{Lang|fr|émigré}} community in [[Heidelberg]].{{sfn|Radkau|2009|pp=233–234}} He was personally popular in that community and twice entertained the idea of a trip to [[Russian Empire|Russia]]. His schedule prevented it, however.{{sfn|Radkau|2009|pp=233–235}} While he was sceptical of the revolution's ability to succeed, Weber supported the establishment of a [[liberal democracy]] in Russia.{{sfnm|1a1=Mommsen|1y=1997|1pp=1–2|2a1=Weber|2y=1997|2p=2}} He wrote two essays on it that were published in the {{Lang|de|Archiv}}.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=234–236|2a1=Weber|2y=1997|2pp=1–2}} Weber interpreted the revolution as having been the result of the peasants' desire for land.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=235–236|2a1=Mommsen|2y=1997|2pp=6–7}} He discussed the role of the {{lang|ru|[[obshchina]]}}, rural peasant communities, in Russian political debates. According to Weber, they were difficult for liberal agrarian reformers to abolish due to a combination of their basis in [[natural law]] and the rising {{lang|ru|[[kulak]]}} class manipulating them for their own gain.{{sfn|Radkau|2009|pp=237–239}} His general interpretation of the Russian Revolution was that it lacked a clear leader and was not based on the Russian intellectuals' goals. Instead, it was the result of the peasants' emotional passions.{{sfn|Radkau|2009|pp=239–241}}

{{multiple image
| total_width = 350
| direction = horizontal
| alt footer = Bust-length portraits of Else von Richthofen and Mina Tobler
| footer = Else von Richthofen and Mina Tobler, Max Weber's mistresses
| image1 = Jaffe freiin von richthofen else 1902.png
| image2 = Mina Tobler.jpg
}}

In 1909, having become increasingly dissatisfied with the political conservatism and perceived lack of methodological discipline of the {{Lang|de|Verein}}, he co-founded the [[German Sociological Association]] ({{Langx|de|Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie|label=none}}) and served as its first treasurer.{{sfnm|1a1=Kim|1y=2022|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2p=277|3a1=Kaesler|3y=2014|3pp=653, 654–655}} Weber associated the society with the {{Lang|de|Verein}} and viewed the two organisations as not having been competitors.{{sfn|Kaesler|2014|pp=653–654}} He unsuccessfully tried to steer the direction of the association.{{sfnm|1a1=Swedberg|1a2=Agevall|1y=2016|1p=|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2pp=654}} As part of that, Weber tried to make the {{Lang|de|Archiv}} its official journal.{{sfn|Swedberg|Agevall|2016|p=85}} He resigned from his position as treasurer in 1912.{{sfnm|1a1=Kim|1y=2022|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2p=277|3a1=Kaesler|3y=2014|3pp=652–655}} That was caused by his support for [[value-freedom]] in the social sciences, as that was a controversial position in the association.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=654–655|2a1=Turner|2y=2001b|2pp=16401–16402}} Weber{{snd}}alongside Simmel, Sombart, and Tönnies{{snd}}placed an abbreviated form of it into the association's statutes, prompting criticism from its other members.{{sfn|Kaesler|2014|pp=654–655}} In the same year, Weber and his wife befriended a former student of his, [[Else von Richthofen]], and the pianist {{Interlanguage link|Mina Tobler|de}}. After a failed attempt to court Richthofen, Weber began an affair with Tobler in 1911.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=343–344, 360|2a1=Lepsius|2y=2004|2pp=11–14}}

===Political involvements===
Later, during the spring of 1913, Weber holidayed in the [[Monte Verità]] community in [[Ascona]], [[Switzerland]].{{sfnm|1a1=Whimster|1y=2016|1p=8|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=358, 280|3a1=Löwy|3a2=Varikas|3y=2022|3p=94}} While holidaying, he was advising Frieda Gross in her custody battle for her children. He opposed [[Erich Mühsam]]'s involvement because Mühsam was an [[anarchist]]. Weber argued that the case needed to be dealt with by bourgeois reformers who were not "derailed".{{sfnm|1a1=Whimster|1y=2016|1pp=18–20|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=383–385|3a1=Löwy|3a2=Varikas|3y=2022|3p=100}} A year later, also in spring, he again holidayed in Ascona.{{sfnm|1a1=Whimster|1y=2016|1p=8|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=358, 280–283|3a1=Löwy|3a2=Varikas|3y=2022|3p=94}} The community contained several different expressions of the then-contemporaneous radical political and lifestyle reform movements. They included [[naturism]], [[free love]], and [[Western esotericism]], among others. Weber was critical of the anarchist and erotic movements in Ascona, as he viewed their fusion as having been politically absurd.{{sfnm|1a1=Whimster|1y=2016|1pp=8–9|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=358, 280–283|3a1=Löwy|3a2=Varikas|3y=2022|3p=100}}

====First World War====
After the outbreak of the [[First World War]] in 1914, Weber volunteered for service and was appointed as a [[Military reserve force|reserve officer]] in charge of organising the army hospitals in Heidelberg, a role he fulfilled until the end of 1915.{{sfnm|1a1=Bendix|1a2=Roth|1y=1977|1p=3|2a1=Kaesler|2y=1988|2p=18|3a1=Radkau|3y=2009|3pp=454–456}} His views on the war and the expansion of the [[German Empire]] changed over the course of the conflict.{{sfnm|1a1=Mommsen|1a2=Steinberg|1y=1984|1pp=196–198|2a1=Kaesler|2y=1988|2pp=18–19|3a1=Weber|3a2=Turner|3y=2014|3pp=22–23}} Early on, he supported the [[History of Germany during World War I|German war effort]], with some hesitation, viewing the war as having been necessary to fulfill Germany's duty as a leading state power. In time, however, Weber became one of the most prominent critics of both [[Lebensraum#First World War nationalist premise|German expansionism]] and the [[Wilhelm II#World War I|Kaiser's war policies]].{{sfnm|1a1=Kim|1y=2022|2a1=Bruhns|2y=2018|2pp=37–44|3a1=Craig|3y=1988|3pp=19–20}} He publicly criticised [[Septemberprogramm|Germany's potential annexation of Belgium]] and [[unrestricted submarine warfare]], later supporting calls for constitutional reform, democratisation, and [[universal suffrage]].{{sfnm|1a1=Kim|1y=2022|2a1=Bruhns|2y=2018|2pp=40, 43–44|3a1=Craig|3y=1988|3p=20}} His younger brother Karl, an architect, was killed near [[Brest-Litovsk]] in 1915 while fighting in the war.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=527–528|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2pp=740–741}} Weber had previously viewed him negatively but his death made him feel more connected to him.{{sfn|Radkau|2009|pp=527–528}}

[[File:Max Weber in Lauenstein, 1917.png|thumb|right|Max Weber (facing right) with Ernst Toller (facing camera) during the Lauenstein Conferences in 1917|alt=Max Weber, facing right, lecturing with Ernst Toller in the center of the background]]

He and his wife also participated in the 1917 Lauenstein Conferences that were held at {{Interlanguage link|Lauenstein Castle|de|Burg Lauenstein (Frankenwald)}} in [[Kingdom of Bavaria|Bavaria]].{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=483–487|2a1=Levy|2y=2016|2pp=87–89|3a1=Kaesler|3y=2014|3pp=747–748}} These conferences were planned by the publisher [[Eugen Diederichs]] and brought together intellectuals, including [[Theodor Heuss]], [[Ernst Toller]], and Werner Sombart.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=483–486|2a1=Levy|2y=2016|2pp=87–90|3a1=Kaesler|3y=2014|3pp=747–748}} Weber's presence elevated his profile in Germany and served to dispel some of the event's [[Romanticism|romantic]] atmosphere. After he spoke at the first one, he became involved in the planning for the second one, as Diederichs thought that the conferences needed someone who could serve as an oppositional figure. In this capacity, he argued against the political romanticism that [[Max Maurenbrecher]], a former theologian, espoused. Weber also opposed what he saw as the excessive rhetoric of the youth groups and nationalists at Lauenstein, instead supporting German democratisation.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=486–487|2a1=Levy|2y=2016|2pp=90–91|3a1=Kaesler|3y=2014|3pp=747–748}} For Weber and the younger participants, the conferences' romantic intent was irrelevant to the determination of Germany's future.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=485–487|2a1=Levy|2y=2016|2pp=89–91|3a1=Kaesler|3y=2014|3pp=749–751}} In November, shortly after the second conference, Weber was invited by the Free Student Youth, a student organisation, to give a lecture in Munich, resulting in "[[Science as a Vocation]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=487–491|2a1=Weber|2y=2004|2p=xix|3a1=Gane|3y=2002|3p=53}} In it, he argued that an inner calling and specialisation were necessary for one to become a scholar.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=487–491|2a1=Weber|2y=2004|2pp=xxv–xxix|3a1=Tribe|3y=2018|3pp=130–133}} Weber also began a [[sadomasochistic]] affair with Else von Richthofen the next year.{{sfnm|1a1=Demm|1y=2017|1pp=64, 82–83|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=521–522}} Meanwhile, she was simultaneously conducting an affair with his brother, [[Alfred Weber|Alfred]].{{sfn|Demm|2017|pp=83–84}} Max Weber's affairs with Richtofen and Mina Tobler lasted until his death in 1920.{{sfnm|1a1=Demm|1y=2017|1pp=64, 82–85|2a1=Lepsius|2y=2004|2p=21}}

====Weimar Republic====
After the war ended, Weber unsuccessfully ran for a seat in the [[Weimar National Assembly]] in January 1919 as a member of the liberal [[German Democratic Party]], which he had co-founded.{{sfnm|1a1=Mommsen|1a2=Steinberg|1y=1984|1pp=303–308|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=513–514|3a1=Kim|3y=2022}} He also advised the National Assembly in its drafting of the [[Weimar Constitution]].{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=866–870|2a1=Bendix|2a2=Roth|2y=1977|2p=3|3a1=Radkau|3y=2009|3pp=511–512}} While he was campaigning for his party, Weber critiqued the left and complained about [[Karl Liebknecht]] and [[Rosa Luxemburg]] who led the leftist [[Spartacus League]]. He regarded the [[German Revolution of 1918–1919]] as having been responsible for Germany's inability to fight against [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]]'s claims on its eastern territories.{{sfn|Radkau|2009|pp=505–508}} His opposition to the revolution may have prevented [[Friedrich Ebert]], the new [[President of Germany (1919–1945)|president of Germany]] and a member of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]], from appointing him as a minister or ambassador.{{sfnm|1a1=Mommsen|1a2=Steinberg|1y=1984|1pp=301–302|2a1=Kaesler|2y=1988|2p=22}} Weber was also critical of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], which he believed unjustly [[Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles|assigned war guilt to Germany]].{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1p=882|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=500–504}} Instead, he believed that many countries were guilty of starting it, not just Germany.{{sfnm|1a1=Waters|1a2=Waters|1y=2015a|1p=22|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=500–503}} In making this case, Weber argued that Russia was the only [[great power]] that actually desired the war.{{sfnm|1a1=Waters|1a2=Waters|1y=2015a|1p=20|2a1=Mommsen|2y=1997|2p=16}} He also regarded Germany as not having been culpable for [[German invasion of Belgium (1914)|its invasion of Belgium]], viewing Belgian neutrality as having obscured an alliance with [[French Third Republic|France]].{{sfn|Waters|Waters|2015a|pp=20, 22}} Overall, Weber's political efforts were largely unsuccessful, with the exception of his support for a democratically elected and strong presidency.{{sfnm|1a1=Kim|1y=2022|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2pp=868–869|3a1=Honigsheim|3y=2017|3p=246}}

On 28 January 1919, after his electoral defeat, Weber delivered a lecture titled "[[Politics as a Vocation]]", which commented on the subject of politics.{{sfnm|1a1=Weber|1y=2004|1pp=xxxiv–xxxv|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=514–515|3a1=Swedberg|3a2=Agevall|3y=2016|3pp=259–260}} It was prompted by the early [[Weimar Republic]]'s political turmoil and was requested by the Free Student Youth.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=514–518|2a1=Weber|2y=2004|2pp=xxxiv–xxxviii|3a1=Gane|3y=2002|3pp=64–65}} Shortly before he left to join the delegation in Versailles on 13 May 1919, Weber used his connections with the [[German National People's Party]]'s deputies to meet with [[Erich Ludendorff]]. He spent several hours unsuccessfully trying to convince Ludendorff to surrender himself to the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]].{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=542–543|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2p=883}} This debate also shifted to other subjects, such as who was culpable for Germany's defeat in the war. Weber thought that the [[Oberste Heeresleitung|German high command]] had failed, while Ludendorff regarded Weber as a democrat who was partially responsible for the revolution. Weber tried to disabuse him of that notion by expressing support for a democratic system with a strong executive. Since he held Ludendorff responsible for Germany's defeat in the war and having sent many young Germans to die on the battlefield, Weber thought that he should surrender himself and become a political martyr. However, Ludendorff was not willing to do so and instead wanted to live off of his pension.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1p=543|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2pp=884–887}}

===Last years===
Frustrated with politics, Weber resumed teaching, first at the [[University of Vienna]] in 1918, then at the [[Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich]] in 1919.{{sfnm|1a1=Kim|1y=2022|2a1=Bendix|2a2=Roth|2y=1977|2p=3|3a1=Radkau|3y=2009|3pp=514, 570}} In [[Vienna]], Weber filled a previously vacant chair in political economy that he had been in consideration for since October 1917.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=491–492|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2pp=761–764}} Later, in [[Munich]], he was appointed to [[Lujo Brentano]]'s chair in social science, economic history, and political economy. He accepted the appointment in order to be closer to his mistress, Else von Richthofen.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=529, 570|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2pp=839–841}} Responding to student requests, he gave a series of lectures on economic history. The student transcriptions of it were later edited and published as the ''[[General Economic History]]'' by {{Interlanguage link|Siegmund Hellmann|de}} and [[Melchior Palyi]] in 1923.{{sfnm|1a1=Weber|1y=2023|1pp=ix–xi|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2pp=904–906|3a1=Kim|3y=2022}} In terms of politics, he opposed the pardoning of the [[List of ministers-president of Bavaria|Bavarian Minister-President]] [[Kurt Eisner]]'s murderer, [[Anton Graf von Arco auf Valley]]. In response to that, right-wing students disrupted his classes and protested in front of his home.{{sfnm|1a1=Mommsen|1a2=Steinberg|1y=1984|1pp=327–328|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=509–510|3a1=Kaesler|3y=2014|3pp=893–895}}

[[File:Max weber.JPG|thumb|left|Max Weber's grave in Heidelberg|alt=A photograph of Max Weber's grave]]

In early 1920, Weber gave a seminar that contained a discussion of [[Oswald Spengler]]'s ''[[The Decline of the West]]''.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=906–907|2a1=Spengler|2a2=Hughes|2y=1991|2pp=xv–xvi}} Weber respected him and privately described him as having been "a very brilliant and scholarly dilettante".{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=906–907|2a1=Farrenkopf|2y=1992|2p=1|3a1=Spengler|3a2=Hughes|3y=1991|3pp=xv–xvi}} That seminar provoked some of his students, who knew Spengler personally, to suggest that he debate Spengler alongside other scholars. They met in the [[New Town Hall (Munich)|Munich town hall]] and debated for two days.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=906–907|2a1=Spengler|2a2=Hughes|2y=1991|2pp=xv–xvi|3a1=Weber|3y=1964|3pp=554–555}} The audience was primarily young Germans with different political perspectives, including [[communist]]s. While neither of them were able to convince the other of their points, Weber was more cautious and careful in his arguments against Spengler than the other debaters were. Afterwards, the students did not feel that the question of how to resolve Germany's post-war issues had been answered.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=906–907|2a1=Farrenkopf|2y=1992|2p=1|3a1=Spengler|3a2=Hughes|3y=1991|3pp=xv–xvi}}

Lili Schäfer, one of Weber's sisters, committed suicide on 7 April 1920 after the pedagogue [[Paul Geheeb]] ended his affair with her. Weber thought positively of it, as he thought that her suicide was justified and that suicide in general could be an honourable act.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=921–922|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=539, 541–542}} Weber and his wife took in Lili's four children and planned to raise them. He was uncomfortable with his newfound role as a father figure, but he thought that Marianne was fulfilled as a woman by this event. She later formally adopted them in 1928. Weber wished for her to stay with the children in Heidelberg or move closer to Geheeb's {{Lang|de|[[Odenwaldschule]]}} ("Odenwald School") so that he could be alone in Munich with his mistress, [[Else von Richthofen]]. He left the decision to Marianne, but she said that only he could make the decision to leave for himself.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=542, 547–548|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2pp=921–923}} While this was occurring, Weber began to believe that own life had reached its end.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1p=544|2a1=Kaesler|2y=2014|2p=923}}

On 4 June 1920, Weber's students were informed that he had a cold and needed to cancel classes. By 14 June 1920, the cold had turned into [[influenza]] and he died of [[pneumonia]] in Munich.{{sfnm|1a1=Radkau|1y=2009|1pp=545–446|2a1=Hanke|2y=2009|2pp=349–350|3a1=Honigsheim|3y=2017|3p=239}} He had likely contracted the [[Spanish flu]] during the post-war pandemic and been subjected to insufficient medical care. Else von Richthofen, who was present by his deathbed alongside his wife, thought that he could have survived his illness if he had been given better treatment.{{sfnm|1a1=Kim|1y=2022|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=545–546|3a1=Hanke|3y=2009|3pp=349–350}} His body was cremated in the Munich {{Lang|de|[[Ostfriedhof (Munich)|Ostfriedhof]]}} after a secular ceremony, and the urn that contained his ashes was later buried in the Heidelberg ''{{Interlanguage link|Bergfriedhof|de|Bergfriedhof (Heidelberg)}}'' in 1921. The funeral service was attended by his students, including {{Interlanguage link|Eduard Baumgarten|de}} and [[Karl Loewenstein]], and fellow scholars, such as Lujo Brentano.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaesler|1y=2014|1pp=16–19|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=549–550|3a1=Hanke|3y=2009|3pp=349–350}} At the time of his death, Weber had not finished writing ''[[Economy and Society]]'', his {{Lang|la|magnum opus}} on sociological theory. His widow, Marianne, helped prepare it for its publication in 1922.{{sfnm|1a1=Roth|1y=2016|1pp=250–253|2a1=Whimster|2y=2023|2p=82|3a1=Hanke|3y=2009|3pp=349–350}} She later published a biography of her late husband in 1926 which became one of the central historical accounts of his life.{{sfnm|1a1=Hanke|1y=2009|1pp=355–357|2a1=Radkau|2y=2009|2pp=178|3a1=Kaesler|3y=2014|3p=40}}