Editing Medieval fortification (section)

==Fortification types==

===Archer towers===
[[Image:TurnulChindiei.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Chindia Tower]], [[Târgoviște]], [[Romania]]]]
{{See also|Watchtower}}
[[Tower]]s of medieval [[castle]]s were usually made of stone, wood or a combination of both (with a stone base supporting a wooden loft). Often toward the later part of the era they included battlements and arrow loops. Arrow loops were vertical slits in the wall through which archers inside shot arrows at the attackers, but made it extremely difficult for attackers to get many arrows back through at the defenders.

=== Siege Defenses ===
[[File:Siege of Lisbon by Roque Gameiro.jpg|left|thumb|A depiction of the Siege of Lisbon in 1147 CE by Roque Gameiro. There are catapults mounted on the towers of the city's walls. The type of catapult utilized is unknown but based on the appearance it is likely a [[mangonel]] or an [[Onager (weapon)|onager]].]]
[[Siege|Sieges]] were common during the Middle Ages and because of this many cities fortified their walls and castles to defend against the use of [[Siege engine|siege engines]] by their attackers<sup>1</sup>. Many cities utilized [[Catapult|catapults]] that would hurl stones and other missiles at enemy siege engines and soldiers. The most commonly used catapult for defense was the [[trebuchet]], a torsion powered catapult that dominated the Middle Ages both offensively and defensively. The trebuchet was known for its considerable force but required a longer loading time compared to other siege engines, sometimes taking up to an hour, which lead to some cities using catapults such as the mangonel and onager instead, which could put projectiles downrange much faster than the trebuchet. The trebuchet’s destructive force caused engineers to thicken walls, round out towers, and to redesign fortifications so that they could employ trebuchets for defense. The [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubids]] between 1196 and 1218 built towers mounted with massive trebuchets, which hypothetically would use their height advantage to take out opposing siege engines.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brown |first=University |date=2008 |title=Part Two: Impact |url=https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Joukowsky_Institute/courses/13things/7677.html#:~:text=The%20trebuchet's%20before%20unseen%20destructive,could%20employ%20trebuchets%20for%20defense. |access-date=2024-04-24 |website=www.brown.edu}}</ref> [[Ballista|Ballistas]] were another type of catapult utilized as a defensive weapon, however they were not often used. This is because their missiles sometimes lacked the force to dismantle enemy siege engines and their immobility confined them to the top of a city's towers were they could easily be taken out by enemy catapults, including offensive ballistas which were usually employed for the very reason of dismantling defenses on the top of towers and keeping defenders off of a wall's [[Battlement|battlements]]. After the invention of [[Cannon|cannons]] near the beginning of 12th century CE, many torsion powered catapults became largely obsolete and cannons became commonplace medieval siege engines by the 15th century. While mostly used for offensive purposes, the first recorded use of a cannon in Europe was to defend the city of Algeciras during the siege of 1343-44.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Finlayson |first=Clive |date=2024 |title=The Development of Artillery |url=https://www.gibmuseum.gi/our-history/military-history/development-of-artillery#:~:text=The%20first%20recorded%20use%20of,on%20top%20to%20reinforce%20them. |access-date=2024-04-24 |website=Gibraltar National Museum |language=en}}</ref> However slow to load, cannons proved to be devastating weapons that could level a city's walls or destroy siege engines with only a single projectile. 

===City walls===
{{Main|Defensive wall}}
[[File:Remains of Kommendemauer Burgsteinfurt.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Remains of a commandry (Order of Knights of St. John of Jerusalem) wall in [[Steinfurt]], Germany. The downward slope on the outer side is hidden behind a fence and shrubbery]]
[[File:Forteresse de Dubrovnik.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Walls of Dubrovnik]], [[Croatia]]]]
An exact nature of the walls of a medieval town or city would depend on the resources available for building them, the nature of the terrain, and the perceived threat. In northern [[Europe]], early in the period, walls were likely to have been constructed of wood and proofed against small forces. Especially where stone was readily available for building, the wood will have been replaced by stone to a higher or lower standard of security. This would have been the pattern of events in the [[Five Burghs|Five Boroughs]] of the [[Danelaw]] in [[England]].

In many cases, the wall would have had an internal and an external ''[[pomoerium]]''. This was a strip of clear ground immediately adjacent the wall. The word is from the late [[medieval]], derived from the classical [[Latin]] ''post murum'' ("behind the wall").

An external pomoerium, stripped of bushes and building, gave defenders a clear view of what was happening outside and an unobstructed field of shot. An internal pomoerium gave ready access to the rear of the [[curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]] to facilitate movement of the [[garrison]] to a point of need. By the end of the sixteenth century, the word had developed further in common use, into ''pomery''.

Also by that time, the medieval walls were no longer secure against a serious threat from an army, as they were not designed to be strong enough to resist cannon fire. They were sometimes rebuilt, as at [[Berwick on Tweed]], or retained for use against thieves and other threats of a lower order. Very elaborate and complex schemes for town defenses were developed in the [[Netherlands]] and [[France]], but these belong mainly to the post-medieval periods. By 1600, the medieval wall is likely to have been seen more as a platform for displaying hangings and the pomery as a gathering ground for spectators, or as a source of building stone and a site for its use, respectively. However, a few, such as those of [[Carcassonne]] and [[Dubrovnik]], survived fairly well and have been restored to a nearly complete state.

Medieval walls that were no longer adequate for defending were succeeded by the [[star fort]]. After the invention of the [[explosive shell]], star forts became obsolete as well.

===Harbors===
[[Image:Fn braun-varadinum.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Fortifications of Várad (now [[Oradea]]/Nagyvárad, [[Romania]]) in a 1617 print]]
[[Harbor|Harbors]] or some sort of water access were often essential to the construction of medieval fortifications. It was a direct route for trading and fortification. Having direct access to a body of water provided a route for resupply in times of war, an additional method of transportation in times of peace, and potential drinking water for a [[besiege]]d castle or fortification. The concept of rivers or harbors coming directly up to the walls of fortifications was especially used by the English as they constructed castles throughout [[Wales]].
There is evidence that harbors were fortified, with wooden structures in the water creating a semi-circle around the harbor, or jetties, as seen in an artist's reconstruction of Hedeby, in Denmark, with an opening for ships to access the land. Usually, these wooden structures would have small bases at either end, creating a 'watch' and defense platform.

===Churches and monasteries===
{{main|Castle chapel}}
[[Religion]] was a central part of the lives of medieval soldiers, and [[Church (building)|churches]], [[chapel]]s, [[monastery|monasteries]], and other buildings of religious function were often included within the walls of any fortification, be it temporary or permanent. A place to conduct religious services was usually essential to the morale of the soldiers.
[[File:Let vrtulnikem11 - hrad Srebrenik (13.-18. stol.) jeste lepe.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Where the fixed wooden bridge stands today over the precipice, at the entrance to [[Srebrenik Fortress|Srebrenik]] in [[Bosnia]], castle used to have lifting bridge.]]

===Mottes and baileys===
{{Main|Motte-and-bailey}}
Motte-and-bailey was the prevalent form of castle during 11th and 12th centuries. A courtyard (called a bailey) was protected by a ditch and a palisade (strong timber fence). Often the entrance was protected by a lifting bridge, a [[drawbridge]] or a timber gate tower. Inside the bailey were stables, workshops, and a chapel.
The motte was the final refuge in this type of castle. It was a raised earth mound, and varied considerably, with these mounds being 3 metres to 30 metres in height (10 feet to 100 feet), and from {{convert|30|to|90|m|ft}} in diameter.<ref>Toy, p.52.</ref> There was a tower on top of the motte. In most cases, the tower was made of timber, though some were also made of stones. Stone towers were found in natural mounds, as artificial ones were not strong enough to support stone towers. Larger mottes had towers with many rooms, including the great hall. Smaller ones had only a watch tower.