Editing Mine reclamation (section)

==Reclamation processes==
{{missing information|section|german experience {{doi| 10.4141/cjss2010-063}}; repurposing of pit as water area|date=January 2023}}
As part of the life cycle of a [[surface coal mine]], completed mine areas must undergo rehabilitation. When mining ends, operators must restore the land to its approximate original contour (AOC) or leave the land graded and suitable for a “higher and better” post-mining land use (PMLU) that has been approved as part of the original mining permit application. Exceptions are provided when a community or surface owner is in need of flat or gently rolling terrain. Acceptable post-mining land uses include commercial, residential, recreational, agricultural or [[public facility]] improvements.

In [[Open-pit mining|open cut mines]] rocky material is used for backfilling the excavation.<ref name="lroc">{{cite book |last1=O. Valero |first1=Nelson |last2=C. Gómez |first2=Liliana |last3=Ramírez |first3=Ramiro |date=2021 |title=Modern Cartography Series Volume 10 |chapter=Chapter 7 - Land reclamation open cast coal mine under semiarid conditions—a field-based observation |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128238950000117 |publisher=Academic Press |page=155-171 |isbn=9780128238950}}</ref> A layer of soil that was stored in the premining is placed on top of the rocky material.  On top of this layer is placed a layer of [[topsoil]].  The final step is the restoration of [[vegetation]] and long-term development of [[Ecological succession|plant succession]].<ref name="lroc"/>

===Forestry Reclamation Approach===

Reforestation is a dominant way of post mining sites restoration.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|date=2019-01-01|title=Rehabilitating forest soils after disturbance|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444639981000136|journal=Developments in Soil Science|language=en|volume=36|pages=309–343|doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-63998-1.00013-6|issn=0166-2481|last1=Prescott |first1=Cindy E. |last2=Frouz |first2=Jan |last3=Grayston |first3=Sue J. |last4=Quideau |first4=Sylvie A. |last5=Straker |first5=Justin |isbn=9780444639981 |s2cid=214319901 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Macdonald|first1=S. Ellen|last2=Landhäusser|first2=Simon M.|last3=Skousen|first3=Jeff|last4=Franklin|first4=Jennifer|last5=Frouz|first5=Jan|last6=Hall|first6=Sarah|last7=Jacobs|first7=Douglass F.|last8=Quideau|first8=Sylvie|date=2015-11-01|title=Forest restoration following surface mining disturbance: challenges and solutions|journal=New Forests|language=en|volume=46|issue=5|pages=703–732|doi=10.1007/s11056-015-9506-4|issn=1573-5095|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015NewFo..46..703M }}</ref> In some situation even spontaneous ecosystem development may result in reasonable forest cover<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2015-11-01|title=Development of canopy cover and woody vegetation biomass on reclaimed and unreclaimed post-mining sites|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0925857415301634|journal=Ecological Engineering|language=en|volume=84|pages=233–239|doi=10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.09.027|issn=0925-8574|last1=Frouz |first1=Jan |last2=Dvorščík |first2=Petr |last3=Vávrová |first3=Alena |last4=Doušová |first4=Olga |last5=Kadochová |first5=Štěpánka |last6=Matějíček |first6=Luboš |bibcode=2015EcEng..84..233F |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Frouz|first1=Jan|last2=Mudrák|first2=Ondřej|last3=Reitschmiedová|first3=Erika|last4=Walmsley|first4=Alena|last5=Vachová|first5=Pavla|last6=Šimáčková|first6=Hana|last7=Albrechtová|first7=Jana|last8=Moradi|first8=Jabbar|last9=Kučera|first9=Jiří|date=2018-01-01|title=Rough wave-like heaped overburden promotes establishment of woody vegetation while leveling promotes grasses during unassisted post mining site development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28964974/|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|volume=205|pages=50–58|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.065|issn=1095-8630|pmid=28964974|bibcode=2018JEnvM.205...50F }}</ref> but in most cases specific restoration approaches are used.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Within the past decade, a new approach to [[reforestation]]—the Forestry Reclamation Approach, or FRA—has been promoted by state mining agencies and the [[Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement]] (OSMRE) as an appropriate and desirable method for reclaiming coal-mined land to support forested land uses under SMCRA. This approach was developed through and is supported by research conducted through the [[Powell River (Tennessee River)|Powell River]] Project,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prp.cses.vt.edu/|title=Powell River Project|first=C. E.|last=Zipper|website=www.prp.cses.vt.edu}}</ref> a cooperative research and education program focused on topics relevant to [[coal mining]] and reclamation in [[Appalachia]].<ref>Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative, Forest Reclamation Advisory No. 1 (http://arri.osmre.gov/FRA/Advisories/FRA_No.1.7-18-07.Revised.pdf)</ref>

The FRA establishes guidelines for achieving successful reforestation on mined lands, and can be summarized in the following five steps:

# Create a suitable rooting medium for good tree growth that is no less than four feet deep and made of topsoil, weathered [[sandstone]], and/or the best available material.
# Loosely grade the topsoil or topsoil substitute established in step one to create a non-compacted growth medium.
# Use groundcovers that are compatible with growing trees.
# Plant two types (or more) of trees: early [[ecological succession|successional]] species for wildlife and [[soil stability]], then commercially valuable [[Timber|crop tree]]s.
# Use proper [[tree planting]] techniques.

===Holistic approach===
When the top successional species for the local environment is not forest due to local [[microclimate]] conditions, reclamation may be better accomplished by establishing [[rangeland]] instead. [[Holistic management]] has been championed by Dan Dagget and others for mine reclamation in these types of situations.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Dagget|first1=Dan|title=Restorative Grazing|work=YES! Magazine |url=http://www.yesmagazine.org/issues/sustaining-watersheds-of-the-pacific-northwest/906|publisher=Yes|access-date=16 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Dagget|first=Dan|title=Convincing Evidence|url=http://www.maninnature.com/Bovines/Cattle/Cattle1a.html|publisher=Man in Nature|access-date=5 April 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010306044501/http://www.maninnature.com/Bovines/Cattle/Cattle1a.html|archive-date=6 March 2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bush|first=Cole|title=Holistic Managed Grazing at Soda Lake|url=http://www.graniterock.com/blogs/holistic-managed-grazing-at-soda-lake|publisher=Graniterock|access-date=5 April 2013}}</ref> When the best available material is not topsoil, topsoil can be made on site by using early successional species of native hardy perennial grasses and other plants, combined with [[livestock]] substituting for the [[species]] of wildlife needed to complete the biosystem. In particular soil development and [[soil biota]] play a substantial role in post mining development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Soil Biota and Ecosystem Development in Post Mining Sites|url=https://www.routledge.com/Soil-Biota-and-Ecosystem-Development-in-Post-Mining-Sites/Frouz/p/book/9781466599314|access-date=2021-07-12|website=Routledge & CRC Press|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2008-01-01|title=Interactions between soil development, vegetation and soil fauna during spontaneous succession in post mining sites|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1164556307001355|journal=European Journal of Soil Biology|language=en|volume=44|issue=1|pages=109–121|doi=10.1016/j.ejsobi.2007.09.002|issn=1164-5563|last1=Frouz |first1=Jan |last2=Prach |first2=Karel |last3=Pižl |first3=Václav |last4=Háněl |first4=Ladislav |last5=Starý |first5=Josef |last6=Tajovský |first6=Karel |last7=Materna |first7=Jan |last8=Balík |first8=Vladimír |last9=Kalčík |first9=Jiří |last10=Řehounková |first10=Klára |bibcode=2008EJSB...44..109F |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2013-12-01|title=Is the effect of trees on soil properties mediated by soil fauna? A case study from post-mining sites|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112713001072|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|language=en|volume=309|pages=87–95|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2013.02.013|issn=0378-1127|last1=Frouz |first1=Jan |last2=Livečková |first2=Miluše |last3=Albrechtová |first3=Jana |last4=Chroňáková |first4=Alica |last5=Cajthaml |first5=Tomáš |last6=Pižl |first6=Václav |last7=Háněl |first7=Ladislav |last8=Starý |first8=Josef |last9=Baldrian |first9=Petr |last10=Lhotáková |first10=Zuzana |last11=Šimáčková |first11=Hana |last12=Cepáková |first12=Šárka |bibcode=2013ForEM.309...87F |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Although soil restoration in post mining land brings many challenges, it also bring opportunities. For example it is noteworthy that the rate of [[soil carbon]] storage on post mining soil can be very high and may exceed the rate of carbon storage one may gain, e.g., by reforestation of arable land.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2018-01-01|title=Soil Organic Matter Accumulation in Postmining Sites: Potential Drivers and Mechanisms|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128121283000082|journal=Soil Management and Climate Change|language=en|pages=103–120|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-812128-3.00008-2|last1=Frouz |first1=Jan |last2=Vindušková |first2=Olga |isbn=9780128121283 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vindušková|first1=Olga|last2=Frouz|first2=Jan|date=2013-07-01|title=Soil carbon accumulation after open-cast coal and oil shale mining in Northern Hemisphere: a quantitative review|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-2004-5|journal=Environmental Earth Sciences|language=en|volume=69|issue=5|pages=1685–1698|doi=10.1007/s12665-012-2004-5|bibcode=2013EES....69.1685V |s2cid=129185046 |issn=1866-6299|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

# Grade the best available material to the required topography, establishing [[Keyline design|keylines]].
# Sow the native species of early successional species of plants and grasses.
# Cover the area with a loose layer of hay mulch to provide the initial "jump start" of forage required for the livestock.
# Using keylines as a guide, establish paddocks and implement holistic planned grazing techniques to heal the land.
# If the goal is to establish a wildlife area or natural park, as the [[keystone species]] begin returning (a process called [[ecological succession]]) or are introduced in large enough numbers, livestock can be reduced or eliminated.

Alternatively, an integrated approach can be taken that uses the holistic approach to accomplish the first three steps of the forestry reclamation approach. Once those first three steps are accomplished and well-established, the livestock grazing can be reduced or eliminated to allow medium and higher successional species to take root and continue the forestry approach.