Editing Moldavian Magnate Wars (section)

== The Magnate Wars (1593–1617) ==

===Causes===
[[File:Jan Zamoyski.jpg|thumb|Chancellor Jan Zamoyski]]

[[Jan Zamoyski]], Polish grand crown [[chancellor]] (''[[kanclerz]]'') and military commander (grand crown [[hetman]]), known for his opposition towards the Habsburgs, had been a vocal supporter of Commonwealth expansion in the southern direction. Since the early plans made by [[List of Polish monarchs|Commonwealth King]] [[Stefan Batory]] for the war against the Ottomans, Zamoyski supported them, viewing those plans as a good long-term strategy for the Commonwealth. Any policy that was against the Ottomans was also supported by the [[Holy See]], and [[Pope Sixtus V]] strongly expressed his support for any war between the Commonwealth and the Ottomans. Three powerful [[magnate]] families from the Commonwealth, the [[Potocki]]s, [[Korecki family|Korecki]]s and [[Wiśniowiecki]]s, were related to the [[Moldavia]]n [[Hospodar]] ([[List of rulers of Moldavia|Prince]] or [[Voivode]]) [[Ieremia Movilă]] (Jeremi Mohyła), and, after his death in 1606, they supported his descendants.

[[File:Rzeczpospolita 1600.png|thumb|left|250px|The Commonwealth at its greatest extent ({{c.}} 1630)]]

Around the end of the 16th century, relations between the Commonwealth and the Ottomans, never too cordial, further worsened with the growing number of independent actions by [[Cossacks]]. From the second part of the 16th century, Cossacks started raiding the territories under Ottoman rule. The Commonwealth could not control the fiercely independent Cossacks, but was held responsible for them, since at that time they were nominally under the Commonwealth rule. At the same time, [[Tatars]] living under Ottoman rule were raiding the Commonwealth. However, they attacked mostly in the south-eastern areas of the Commonwealth, which were fairly sparsely inhabited, while the Cossacks were raiding the heart of the Ottoman Empire, wealthy merchant port cities just two days away from the mouth of the [[Dnieper]] river (which the Cossacks used as their main transportation route). By 1615, Cossacks had even burned the townships on the outskirts of [[Constantinople]]. Consecutive treaties between the Ottoman Empire and the Commonwealth called both parties to curb Cossack and Tatar activities, but they were never implemented on either side of the border. In internal agreements, pushed forward by the Polish side, the Cossacks agreed to burn their boats and stop their raiding. However, Cossack boats could be built quickly, and the Cossack lifestyle required periodic hunts for glory and booty. Sometimes Cossacks just needed resources to ensure their subsistence, while on other occasions they were bribed by the Habsburgs to help ease Ottoman pressure on their borders. Also, there was widespread animosity between Cossacks and Tatars, after decades of border clashes and reciprocal looting of estates and villages. Cossacks raided Ottomans territories and their vassals near the [[Black Sea]] almost yearly, usually attracting retaliatory [[Tatars|Tatar]] raids (and vice versa). The vicious circle of chaos and retaliations often turned the entire south-eastern Commonwealth border into a low-level warzone.

===1593–1595===
[[File:Lesseur-Hetman Żółkiewski.jpg|thumb|left|Hetman [[Stanisław Żółkiewski]] participated in the Moldavian campaign and the [[battle of Cecora (1595)|battle of Cecora of 1595]], near the [[Prut]] river.]]
In 1593, war between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburgs started. In 1594 a very strong Tatar raid, carried out by about 20,000–30,000 men led by the [[List of Crimean khans|Khan]] of [[Crimean Khanate|Crimea]], [[Ğazı II Giray]] (Gazi Gerej II), plundered [[Pokucie]] and moved to Hungary through mountain passes, in order to plunder Habsburg lands. Commonwealth troops gathered too late to intercept it. The [[List of rulers of Transylvania|Prince]] of [[Transylvania]], [[Sigismund Báthory]] (Zsigmond Báthory), nephew of former Polish king [[Stefan Batory]] (István Báthory), had strengthened Habsburg influence in Moldavia after setting [[Ștefan Răzvan]] (Stefan Rozwan) on the Moldavian throne. Ștefan Răzvan was a [[Romani people|Roma]] from [[Wallachia]] (his father had been an Ottoman Muslim Roma, therefore not a slave) and had married a Moldavian noblewoman (his story was the basis of a play by 19th-century [[Romania]]n writer and historian [[Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu]]).

A pro-Polish hospodar was mostly tolerated by the [[Ottoman Porte|Porte]] when the Commonwealth was anti-Habsburg or neutral. Therefore, when [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Rudolf II]]'s forces gained control of Moldavia, Transylvania ({{langx|pl|Siedmiogród}}) and started supporting [[Mihai Viteazul]] ({{langx|pl|Michał Waleczny}}), prince of [[Wallachia]], the Ottomans didn't look too favourably at the Commonwealth's meddling.

In 1595 Zamoyski, persuaded by Moldavian refugees, decided to intervene. The Commonwealth forces (numbering ~7,000–8,000 soldiers) under hetman Jan Zamoyski crossed the [[Dniester]], defeated local opposition (while Transylvanian troops retreated to their own country) and Ottoman reinforcements, and set [[Ieremia Movilă]] on the Moldavian throne as a Commonwealth vassal. This was seen by many as a very dangerous step because the Ottomans were preparing to place their own candidate on the Moldavian throne. Zamoyski contacted [[grand vizier]] [[Sinan Pasha]] and negotiated with the Ottoman governor on the [[Black Sea]] island of [[Tyahyn]] (near the [[Dnieper]] river) and convinced them of his peaceful intentions and that he did not want to fight with the Ottoman Empire. However, the Khan of Crimea, Ğazı II Giray, reacted and entered Moldavia with about 20,000 men (but no cannons and few [[janissaries]]). Zamoyski fortified his camp near [[Cecora]] at [[Prut]] river, withstood a [[Battle of Cecora (1595)|three-day siege]] (17–20 October), and managed to obtain an agreement with the Ottoman Empire that recognized Movilă as hospodar ([[Treaty of Cecora]]). Moldavia became the Commonwealth's [[vassal]] and paid [[tribute]] to Constantinople at the same time (this is known as [[Condominium (international law)|condominium]]—territory under rule of two sovereign powers). Not satisfied with this, previous hospodar Ștefan Răzvan invaded Moldavia, but his troops were crushed by Zamoyski and Răzvan was [[Impalement|impaled]] by Movilă.

===1599–1601===
[[File:MViteazul at Alba Iulia.jpg|thumb|left|Mihai Viteazul, Voivode of Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia]]
In 1599, Mihai Viteazul, wishing to secure his back after Sigismund Báthory's departure from the Transylvanian throne, [[Battle of Șelimbăr|defeated]] the new ruler of Transylvania, [[Andrew Cardinal Báthory]] (Andrzej Batory), who lost his life fleeing after battle, and took over Transylvania as governor on behalf of the Habsburg emperor Rudolf II. Later on, Mihai defeated Ieremia Movilă and took control over almost all of Moldavia, with the exception of [[Khotyn]] (Chocim or Hotin, a castle and a city on the right bank of the [[Dniester]]), which remained in Polish hands. Mihai used titles of voivode of Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia for the first time in May 1600. He tried to get recognition from Emperor Rudolf II, offered his vassalage to the Commonwealth, and organized an anti-Turkish league. After King [[Sigismund III Vasa]] (Zygmunt III Waza) refused, Mihai sent his troops to take over Pokucie (an area Moldavians were claiming to be theirs) but Commonwealth hetman [[Stanisław Żółkiewski]] met them with resistance.
[[File:Moldavia, Transylvania and Wallachia under Michael the Brave's authority (1600).png|thumb|300px|The three Principalities and the territories united under Mihai's authority for four months.]]
In 1600 Zamoyski and hetman [[Jan Karol Chodkiewicz]] gathered Commonwealth forces, returning to Moldavia, where they fought Mihai. Zamoyski defeated Mihai Viteazul near [[Bucov]] (Bukova) in Wallachia, on the [[Battle of Bucov|Teleajen river]], near present-day [[Ploiești]], restored Ieremia Movilă to the throne, and helped his brother [[Simion Movilă]] to gain the throne in [[Bucharest]], thus temporarily extending the sphere of Commonwealth influence south all the way to the [[Danube]]. In the meantime, Mihai Viteazul traveled to [[Vienna]] to ask for the Emperor's help, in exchange for assisting the Habsburgs against the Ottomans and Imperial influence over Moldavia, previously aligned with the Commonwealth. The Emperor promised help and in 1601 sent an army led by [[Giorgio Basta]] that was to accompany Mihai on the way back. Upon their arrival in Transylvania, after the [[Battle of Guruslău|joint victory at Gurăslău]] against the prince of Transylvania, [[Sigismund Báthory]], general Basta assassinated Mihai Viteazul during the night, on the field of [[Câmpia Turzii]] (south of [[Cluj-Napoca|Cluj]]), effectively taking Transylvania under the Emperor's lead.

[[Captain John Smith]], the famous leader of the colony at [[Jamestown, Virginia]] and the [[Pocahontas]] story, was serving [[Sigismund Báthory]] as a mercenary. Smith was captured, and sold to [[Crimean Tatars|Crimean Tatar]] slave traders. He later escaped to [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]] before continuing on to [[Kingdom of England|England]], from where he sailed to [[Americas|America]] in 1607.

The Commonwealth was unable to capitalize on its gains, as the [[Polish–Swedish wars|Polish–Swedish war]] had just started and the majority of Commonwealth forces were desperately needed to protect [[Livonia]] (Inflanty). A year later, Simion Movilă was ousted from the Wallachian throne by local boyars who replaced him with [[Radu Șerban]], with the consent of the Ottomans (relieved to see the Polish influence at the Danube diminish). The Commonwealth managed to retain control over Moldavia, and the only side not to gain anything was the Habsburgs: in fact, they lost control over all of their former possessions in the region. However, the [[Peace of Žitava]] ended the Habsburg-Ottoman conflict known as the [[Long Turkish War|Long War]], and forced the Ottomans to recognize the Habsburgs as equals, due to the former's inability to penetrate [[royal Hungary]]. This ended direct war between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs for decades, but the two powers still struggled for influence in the region that constitutes modern-day [[Romania]].

===1607–1613===
Ieremia Movilă died in 1606. In 1607 Stefan Potocki set his brother-in-law (and son of Ieremia), [[Constantin Movilă]] (Konstanty Mohyła), on the Moldavian throne. However, Stefan Potocki was one of the pro-Habsburg magnates and [[Gabriel Báthory]], the anti-Habsburg ruler of Transylvania, removed Constantin Movilă in 1611. The Moldavian throne now fell to [[Ștefan IX Tomșa|Ștefan II Tomșa]] (Tomża).

A second intervention by [[Stefan Potocki, voivode of Bratslav|Stefan Potocki]] (with tacit assistance from Sigismund III, but against the will of [[Sejm]] and [[Senate of Poland|Senate]]) in 1612 was a complete failure. Potocki's 7,000 strong army was defeated on 19 July in the [[Battle of Cornul lui Sas|Battle of Sasowy Róg]] (near [[Ștefănești, Botoșani|Ștefănești]]) by troops of Tomșa and [[Khan Temir]]'s Tatars of the [[Budjak Horde]]. Stefan Potocki and Constantin Movilă ended their lives in Ottoman captivity in Constantinople. A counter-raid of Tatars and Tomșa on the Commonwealth was stopped by Żółkiewski without a fight, and an agreement between Żółkiewski and Tomșa was signed in October 1612 (at [[Khotyn]]). Tomșa assured about his friendliness, that he will help to patch up conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Commonwealth and pledged allegiance to the Polish king.

In 1613, when Sigismund signed a [[de facto]] anti-Turkish defensive treaty with the Habsburgs, counting on their support for his restoration to the Swedish throne, Poland further moved into the enemy camp from the Ottoman point of view. Hetman [[Stanisław Żółkiewski]], with a show of force, induced Moldavians and Turks to compromise and signed an agreement in 1612 with Ștefan Tomșa at Khotyn.

===1614–1617===

In 1614 [[Ottoman dynasty|Sultan]] [[Ahmed I]] wrote Sigismund III that he was sending Ahmed Pasha to punish “those bandits”, that this was not meant as a gesture of hostility to the Commonwealth, and that he asked of him not to be a host to fugitives; Ahmed Pasha wrote hetman Żółkiewski asking for cooperation. Żółkiewski answered that he had already done a lot in order to curb Cossack attacks, and that most of the Cossacks raiding Ottoman lands were not the [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] of the Commonwealth, but rather [[Don Cossacks]] (and thus [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovy]] subjects). Żółkiewski's troops made another demonstration, but Ahmed Pasha did not attempt to cross the border, and settled for building new fortifications in the region of [[Ochakov]] (Oczaków, tr:Ozi) in order to prevent future raids.

In 1615, Ieremia Movilă's widow and dukes [[Michał Wiśniowiecki]] and [[Samuel Korecki]] organized a third intervention, this time carried against King Sigismund's wishes. Their troops consisted of their own private troops, [[mercenaries]], Cossacks and Moldavians loyal to Movilă. Tomșa was removed and the young [[Alexandru Movila|Alexandru Movilă]] (Aleksander Mohyła) was set on the throne. But this situation was not to last: in August 1616 [[Iskender Pasha (governor of Ozi)|Iskender Pasha]], [[beylerbey]] (bejlerbej) of Bosnia, defeated magnate forces on the very same spot at Sasowy Róg, with Duke Samuel Korecki and the Movilă family ending up as prisoners in Constantinople (Wiśniowiecki had died prior to imprisoning). Korecki managed to escape captivity, briefly reemerged, but was taken prisoner yet again after the defeat in the [[Battle of Cecora (1620)|Battle of Cecora in 1620]] and was strangled to death while in custody.

Again in 1616, Stefan Żółkiewski managed to cool the tensions, displaying Commonwealth military readiness and signing a new agreement with the new hospodar, [[Radu Mihnea]], in [[Braha]]. He was promised Moldavian mediation in patching up conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Commonwealth. Radu Mihnea pledged allegiance to the Polish king and promised not to allow the Tatars passage through his territory. However, northern and eastern wars with Sweden and Muscovy diverted the attention of the Commonwealth and strained its military might to the limit. In 1617, after yet another wave of Cossack raids, the Sultan sent a powerful force under Iskender Pasha to the Commonwealth borders. The army consisted of [[janissaries]], Tatars and vassal troops form Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia (numbering up to 40,000). Żółkiewski met them near [[Busza]] (on the [[Jaruga (river)|Jaruga]] River), but neither side could decide to attack, and letters between leaders had been exchanged since the start of Iskender's march. Żółkiewski had mostly magnate troops and no Cossack troops, as the Commonwealth waged war with Muscovy and with new Swedish aggression on Livonia at the same time, while the Ottomans were at [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)|war with Persia]]. Żółkiewski was forced to renounce all Polish claims to Moldavia through the [[Treaty of Busza]] (also known as the "Treaty of Jaruga") signed with Iskender Pasha. The treaty stated that Poland would not meddle in the internal affairs of Ottoman vassals in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia, the Commonwealth was to prevent Cossacks from raiding lands in the Ottoman Empire, while ceding Khotyn. In return, the Turks promised to stop Tatar raids.