Editing Montenegrin language (section)

==History==
{{One source section|date=December 2023}}
The beginnings of Montenegrin literacy date back to 9th century, during the [[Duklja]] period, with the establishment of numerous monasteries in the coastal region. While traces of Latin and Greek literacy from the Duklja period are partially preserved, there is only indirect evidence of literacy in the Slavic language. The use of [[Glagolitic script]] in Duklja was influenced by the strong center of Slavic literacy in [[Ohrid]], although some argue that Slavic literature in Duklja was written in Latin script. Literary activity flourished around [[Lake Skadar]] during this period, with the Monastery of Prečista Krajinska as a significant center.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature">{{cite web|url= http://www.fcjk.me/o-jeziku |title=O jeziku|publisher=Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature|date=21 May 2023|language=Montenegrin}}</ref>

The [[Principality of Zeta|Zeta]] period begins with the fall of Duklja to Serbian rule and extends through the rule of the [[Balšić]] and [[Crnojević]] families. While there is no consensus on the dating of Glagolitic and Cyrillic scripts in present-day Montenegro, it is established that [[Old Church Slavonic]] and [[Cyrillic]] became dominant during the Zeta period, replacing [[Glagolitic script]].<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

In Zeta was established a printing press by [[Đurađ Crnojević]], starting in Obod and later moving to [[Cetinje]]. This press produced five [[incunable|incunabula]], making Montenegro one of the four Slavic nations with incunabula in their language. During this period there was a development of the Zetan (Montenegrin) redaction of Old Church Slavonic, exemplified by the [[Miroslav Gospel]] from the 12th century, written in [[Kotor]]. This redaction adapted Old Church Slavonic to the local language of medieval Zeta, influencing Bosnian and Serbian redactions. Despite being erroneously labeled as Zeta-Hum redaction, it originated in Zeta and then spread to Hum.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

The period of written language spans from the late 15th to the 18th century. During this time, written language represents the written realization of the local spoken language. In new socio-historical circumstances in Montenegro, there was a gradual shift towards the reintegration of the Montenegrin language with a popular basis. However, Old Church Slavonic continued to be used in the Orthodox Church for a long time. In this phase, Old Church Slavonic books and Cyrillic script dominated. Yet, in the coastal region, the influence of the Montenegrin type of Old Church Slavonic had little impact on the literature of the period, where Latin and [[Italian language]] prevailed.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

The written language in secular use continued to follow the development of the Montenegrin spoken language, progressively shedding Church Slavonic elements as time passed. The most significant writers during the period of written language emerged in the late Baroque period - [[Andrija Zmajević]] in the coastal part [[Bay of Kotor]] and [[Danilo I, Metropolitan of Cetinje|Danilo Petrović Njegoš]] in the continental part [[Cetinje]]. Both wrote in the Montenegrin vernacular.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

From the second half of the 18th century, strengthened by the state and church organization, conditions were created for the establishment of the uncodified Montenegrin literary language as a means of common communication across the territory under the jurisdiction of the state and church. Even before the birth of [[Vuk Stefanović Karadžić]], Ivan-Antun Nenadić from [[Perast]] advocated for the phonetic orthographic principle, emphasizing that writing should reflect how people speak and pronounce. This rule was applied early in Montenegrin literature, making it unsurprising that Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reforms were later accepted without significant issues. In the period of the uncodified Montenegrin literary language, three styles can be observed: literary, business, and scientific, all formed in the process of spontaneous Montenegrin linguistic standardization. Montenegrin literature, both linguistically and thematically, originated from everyday life. In the period in question, the highest achievement of such literary language is seen in the letters of [[Petar I Petrović-Njegoš]].<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

As a result of Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reform, during the transitional period of the Montenegrin language (from the 1830s to World War I), significant changes occurred, and some typical Montenegrin linguistic features were officially abolished. Throughout this period, the language in Montenegro was officially referred to as [[Serbian language|Serbian]], and the assimilation of the Montenegrin language toward the general štokavian Karadžić model was primarily implemented through textbooks and external teaching staff that wholeheartedly followed the principles of Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reform.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

Vuk's principle of introducing the vernacular into literature encountered little opposition in Montenegro, as it was already present there before Vuk. However, the complete acceptance of all aspects of this reform did not proceed smoothly, leading to divisions among Montenegrin cultural figures.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" /> In lengthy debates, [[Jovan Pavlović]] (a consistent follower of Vuk) and [[Lazar Tomanović]] stood out, with Tomanović advocating for the introduction of graphemes ś and ź. Đuro Špadijer, in his Serbian Grammar (intended for 3rd and 4th grades in Montenegrin elementary schools), introduced some characteristics considered by Vuk's model as dialectal and provincial.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

However, from the school year 1863/64, Montenegro began the continuous implementation of Karadžić's linguistic reform in Cetinje schools. This reform would ultimately achieve a definitive victory in Montenegro by the end of the 19th century, primarily in administrative, journalistic, and scientific styles.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

The literary style, which retained fundamental Montenegrin linguistic features, resisted this process the longest and mostly remained beyond the reach of the mentioned reform, entering the 20th century with preserved foundational Montenegrin language characteristics. The preservation of typical Montenegrin language features in the literary style is evident in the works of three representative figures from that period: [[Petar II Petrović Njegoš]], [[Stefan Mitrov Ljubiša]], and [[Marko Miljanov Popović]].<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

===Yugoslav era===
The most significant changes in the Montenegrin literary language occurred during the phase marked by the influence of Serbian linguist [[Aleksandar Belić]], between the two World Wars. Montenegrin linguistic peculiarities, preserved in the literary style in the first two decades of the 20th century, were assimilated into the common "Serbo-Croatian" linguistic template in the new socio-historical framework. Although Belić's Orthography from 1923 formally allowed the use of [[ijekavian]], he emphasized in that edition and subsequent ones that [[jekavian]] jotization is a dialectal phenomenon. Consequently, Montenegrins were obligated to use atypical non-jotized forms such as "djed" (grandfather), "cjedilo" (strainer), "tjerati" (to drive), "sjesti" (to sit), and so on.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" /><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.cpc.org.me/latinica/istorija/jezik/638-ukidanje-crnogorskog-jezika-radi-knjizevnog-jedinstva-1857/ |title=Ukidanje crnogorskog jezika radi književnog jedinstva (1857.) |publisher=Montenegrin Orthodox Church|date=1 January 2023|language=Montenegrin}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.antenam.net/istorija/305868-zapisnik-iz-1969-o-jeziku-crnogoraca-1 |title=Zapisnik iz 1969. o jeziku Crnogoraca|publisher=Antena M|date=19 November 2023|language=Montenegrin}}</ref>

In subsequent editions, Belić abolished the normative status of the so-called longer endings of pronominal-adjective declension (-ijem, -ijeh) and codified only the short endings. This led Vuk's language model to be gradually abandoned by his followers. Despite the formal acknowledgment of ijekavian in literary language, the interwar period in Montenegro was marked by an increasing use of [[ekavian]]. The introduction of ekavian was implemented through education, as textbooks and teaching staff predominantly followed ekavian norms. This is vividly illustrated by writings in the Montenegrin press of that time.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" /><ref>{{cite journal|title=Indicating ideology: Variation in Montenegrin orthography|date=1 January 2023|doi=10.1016/j.langcom.2022.10.004 |last1=Tyran |first1=Katharina |journal=Language & Communication |volume=88 |pages=41–51 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The contemporary stage in the development of the Montenegrin literary language encompasses the period after World War II, with the improvement of the country's status, the language's standing also improved. Although Montenegro did not gain the right to name its language with its own name, during this period, institutions promoting the Montenegrin language were substantively developed. Associations and organizations like the Montenegrin PEN Center, Matica crnogorska, Duklja Academy of Sciences and Arts, the Institute for Montenegrin Language and Linguistics, and the Montenegrin Society of Independent Writers played a crucial role in preserving Montenegrin values. The Declaration on the Constitutional Status of the Montenegrin Language by the Montenegrin PEN Center in 1997 was a significant document emphasizing the autonomy of the Montenegrin language. These efforts culminated in the new Montenegrin Constitution of 2007, where the Montenegrin language gained official status for the first time. The establishment of the Council for the Standardization of the Montenegrin Language in 2008 and the adoption of the Montenegrin Spelling Book in 2009 represent significant steps in the standardization and affirmation of the Montenegrin language.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />