Editing Muammar Gaddafi (section)

==Early life and career==
===Childhood: 1940s to 1950===
Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi<ref name="iccwarrant">{{cite web |title=The Prosecutor v. Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi, Saif al-Islam al-Gaddafi and Abdullah al-Senussi |url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/situations%20and%20cases/situations/icc0111/related%20cases/icc01110111/Pages/icc01110111.aspx |work=ICC-01/11-01/11 |publisher=International Criminal Court |access-date=5 December 2013 |date=11 November 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113152832/https://www.icc-cpi.int/libya/gaddafi?ln=en |archive-date=13 November 2016 }}</ref> was born near [[Qasr Abu Hadi]], a rural area outside the town of [[Sirte]] in the deserts of [[Tripolitania]], Italian western Libya.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=33|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=9|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=135}} His family came from a small, relatively uninfluential tribe called the [[Qadhadhfa]],{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=58|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=33|3a1=Simons|3y=1996|3p=170|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4p=9}} who were [[Arabs|Arab]] in heritage. His mother was Aisha bint Niran, and his father, Mohammad Abdul Salam bin Hamed bin Mohammad, was known as Abu Meniar; the latter earned a meager subsistence as a goat and camel herder.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=58|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=33|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=9}}

Like other contemporary nomadic [[Bedouin]] tribes, the family were illiterate and did not keep any birth records.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=35|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=9|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=135}} His birthday is not known with certainty and sources have set it in 1942 or the spring of 1943,{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=35|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=9|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=135}} although his biographers [[David Blundy]] and [[Andrew Lycett]] noted that it could have been pre-1940.{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|p=35}} His parents' only surviving son, he had three older sisters.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=35|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=9|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=135}} Gaddafi's upbringing in Bedouin culture influenced his personal tastes; he preferred the desert over the city and would retreat there to meditate.{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1p=9|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=135}}

From childhood, Gaddafi was aware of the involvement of European colonial powers in Libya; his nation was [[Italian Libya|occupied by Italy]], and during the [[North African Campaign]] of the [[Second World War]] it witnessed conflict between Italian and British forces.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=35–37|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=135}} According to later claims, Gaddafi's paternal grandfather, Abdessalam Bouminyar, was killed by the Italian Army during the [[Italo-Turkish War|Italian invasion of 1911]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bianco|1y=1975|1p=4|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=37|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=4}} At the end of the Second World War in 1945, Libya was occupied by British and French forces. Britain and France considered dividing the nation between their empires, but the [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]] of the United Nations (UN) decided that the country was to be granted political independence,{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=38–39|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2pp=7–9, 14|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=108}} and in 1951 created the [[United Kingdom of Libya]], a federal state under the leadership of a pro-Western monarch, [[Idris of Libya|Idris]], who banned political parties and centralized power in his own hands.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=38–39|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2pp=7–9, 14|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=108}}

===Education and political activism: 1950–1963===

Gaddafi's earliest education was of a religious nature, imparted by a local Islamic teacher.{{sfnm|1a1=Bianco|1y=1975|1p=5|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2pp=135–136}} Subsequently, moving to nearby Sirte to attend elementary school, he progressed through six grades in four years.{{sfnm|1a1=Bianco|1y=1975|1pp=5–6, 8–9|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=39|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=10|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=136}} Education in Libya was not free, but his father thought it would greatly benefit his son despite the financial strain. During the week Gaddafi slept in a mosque, and only at weekends and holidays walked {{convert|20|miles|km}} to visit his parents. Even though Gaddafi's father was not educated, he made great sacrifices to send his son to school.{{sfnm|1a1=Bianco|1y=1975|1pp=5–6, 8–9|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=39|3a1=Simons|3y=1996|3p=170|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4p=10|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5p=136}} As an impoverished Bedouin, he faced bullying and discrimination from his city-dwelling classmates. However, he had many Egyptian teachers who informed him of the dramatic events occurring in their homeland.{{sfnm|1a1=Bianco|1y=1975|1pp=5–6, 8–9|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=39|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=10|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=136}} From Sirte, he and his family moved to the market town of [[Sabha, Libya|Sabha]] in [[Fezzan]], south-central Libya, where his father worked as a caretaker for a tribal leader while Muammar attended secondary school, something neither parent had done.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=39|2a1=Simons|2y=1996|2pp=170–171|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=10–11|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=136}} Gaddafi was popular at this school; some friends made there received significant jobs in his later administration, most notably his best friend, [[Abdessalam Jalloud|Abdul Salam Jalloud]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=58|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=39–40|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=11}}

[[File:Nasser portrait2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Egyptian [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|President Nasser]] was Gaddafi's political hero.]]

Many teachers at Sabha were Egyptian, and for the first time, Gaddafi had access to pan-Arab newspapers and radio broadcasts, especially the [[Cairo]]-based ''[[Voice of the Arabs]]''.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=58|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=40|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=11–12|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=136}} Growing up, Gaddafi witnessed significant events severely disturb the [[Arab world]], including the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]], the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1952]], the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956, and the short-lived existence of the [[United Arab Republic]] (UAR) between 1958 and 1961.{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=136}} Gaddafi admired the political changes implemented in the [[Arab Republic of Egypt]] under his hero, President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]. Nasser argued for [[Arab nationalism]]; the rejection of Western [[colonialism]], [[neo-colonialism]], and [[Zionism]]; and a transition from [[capitalism]] to [[socialism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=40|2a1=Vandewalle|2y=2008b|2p=10|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=11–12|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=136}} Gaddafi was influenced by Nasser's book, ''Philosophy of the Revolution'', which outlined how to initiate a coup.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=40|2a1=Simons|2y=1996|2p=171}} One of Gaddafi's Egyptian teachers, Mahmoud Efay, was reportedly sympathetic towards the youth's political ideas, and advised him that a successful revolution would need the support of the army.{{sfn|Simons|1996|p=171}}

Gaddafi organized demonstrations and distributed posters criticizing the monarchy.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=42–43|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2pp=11–12|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=136}} In October 1961, he led a demonstration protesting against Syria's secession from the UAR and raised funds to send cables of support to Nasser. Twenty students were arrested as a result of the disorder. Gaddafi and his companions also broke windows in a local hotel that was [[Islamic dietary laws#Intoxicants|accused of serving alcohol]]. To punish Gaddafi, the authorities expelled him and his family from Sabha.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=58|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=42–43|3a1=Simons|3y=1996|3pp=171–172|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4p=11|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5p=136}} Gaddafi moved to [[Misrata]], there attending Misrata Secondary School.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=58|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=44|3a1=Simons|3y=1996|3p=172|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4p=11|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5p=137}} Maintaining his interest in Arab nationalist activism, he refused to join any of the banned political parties active in the city—including the [[Arab Nationalist Movement]], the [[Libyan Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]], and the [[Muslim Brotherhood]]—claiming that he rejected factionalism.{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=137}} He read voraciously on the subjects of Nasser and the [[French Revolution]] of 1789, as well as the works of the Syrian political theorist [[Michel Aflaq]] and biographies of [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[Sun Yat-sen]], and [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]].{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=137}}

===Military training: 1963–1966===
Gaddafi briefly studied history at the [[University of Libya]] in [[Benghazi]] before dropping out to join the military.{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1pp=46–47|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=138}} Despite his police record, in 1963 he began training at the [[Benghazi Military University Academy|Royal Military Academy]], Benghazi, alongside several like-minded friends from Misrata. The armed forces offered the only opportunity for upward social mobility for underprivileged Libyans, and Gaddafi recognized it as a potential instrument of political change.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=45|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=12|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=138}} Under Idris, Libya's armed forces were trained by the British military; this angered Gaddafi, who viewed the British as imperialists, and accordingly, he refused to learn English and was rude to the British officers, ultimately failing his exams.{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|p=45}} British trainers reported him for insubordination and abusive behaviour, stating their suspicion that he was involved in the assassination of the military academy's commander in 1963. Such reports were ignored, and Gaddafi quickly progressed through the course.{{Contradictory inline |reason=contradicts statement a few sentences earlier that he ultimately failed his exams|date=September 2023}}{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=46, 48–49|2a1=Simons|2y=1996|2p=173}}

With a group of loyal cadres, in 1964, Gaddafi established the Central Committee of the Free Officers Movement, a revolutionary group named after Nasser's [[Free Officers Movement (Egypt)|Egyptian predecessor]]. Led by Gaddafi, they met secretively and were organized into a [[clandestine cell system]], pooling their salaries into a single fund.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=47–48|2a1=Simons|2y=1996|2p=173|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=12–13}} Gaddafi travelled around Libya collecting intelligence and developing connections with sympathizers, but the government's intelligence services ignored him, considering him little threat.{{sfn|Kawczynski|2011|p=13}} Graduating in August 1965,{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=138}} Gaddafi became a communications officer in the army's signal corps.{{sfnm|1a1=Simons|1y=1996|1p=174|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=138}}

In April 1966, he was assigned to the United Kingdom for further training; over nine months he underwent an English-language course at [[Beaconsfield]], Buckinghamshire, an [[Army Air Corps (United Kingdom)|Army Air Corps]] signal instructors course in [[Bovington Camp]], Dorset, and an infantry signal instructors course at [[Hythe, Kent|Hythe]], Kent.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=49–50|2a1=Simons|2y=1996|2p=174|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=13|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=138}} Despite later rumours to the contrary, he did not attend the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]].{{sfn|Kawczynski|2011|p=13}} The Bovington signal course's director reported that Gaddafi successfully overcame problems learning English, displaying a firm command of voice procedure. Noting that Gaddafi's favourite hobbies were reading and playing [[association football|football]], he thought of him as an "amusing officer, always cheerful, hard-working, and conscientious".{{sfn|St. John|2012|pp=138–139}} Gaddafi disliked England, claiming [[British Army]] officers had racially insulted him and finding it difficult adjusting to the country's culture; asserting his Arab identity in London, he walked around [[Piccadilly]] wearing traditional Libyan robes.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=49–50|2a1=Simons|2y=1996|2p=174|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=13|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=139}} He later related that while he travelled to England believing it more advanced than Libya, he returned home "more confident and proud of our values, ideals and social character".{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=49–50|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=13|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=139}}