Editing Muhammad Abduh (section)

== Biography ==
Muḥammad ʿAbduh was born in 1849 to a father with [[Turkish people|Turkish ancestry]]<ref>Arthur Goldschmidt, ''Biographical Dictionary of Modern Egypt'', Lynne Rienner Publishers (2000), p. 10.</ref><ref name=Taylor>{{citation|last=Adams|first=Charles Clarence|year=1933|chapter=Muhammad Abduh: Biography|title=Islam and Modernism in Egypt, Volume 10|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=0415209080|page=18|quote=True, his father 'Abduh ibn Hasan Khair Allah, came from a family of Turkish origin that had settled in the village of Mahallat Nasr in the Buhairah Province at some remote time in the past...}}</ref> and an [[Egyptians|Egyptian]] mother<ref>{{cite book|last=Hourani|first=Albert|title=Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age|url=https://archive.org/details/arabicthoughtinl0000hour|url-access=registration|year=1962|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Great Britain|page=[https://archive.org/details/arabicthoughtinl0000hour/page/130 130]}}</ref> in the [[Nile Delta]].<ref name=EB/> His family was part of the [[Egypt Eyalet|Ottoman Egyptian]] [[elite]]: his father was part of the [[Umad]], or the local ruling elite, while his mother was part of the [[Ashraf]]. He was educated in [[Tanta]] at a private school.<ref name=EB/> When he turned thirteen, he was sent to the Aḥmadī mosque, which was one of the largest educational institutions in Egypt. A while later, ʿAbduh ran away from school and got married. After a brief period following his marriage, ʿAbduh returned to his school in Tanta. During this period, ʿAbduh studied under the tutelage of his [[Sufism|Sufi Muslim]] uncle Dārwīsh, who was a member of the revivalist and reformist ''Madaniyya'' ''[[Tariqa|Tarîqâh]]'', a popular branch of the ''[[Shadhili]]yya'' order, spread across Egypt, [[Ottoman Libya|Libya]], [[Ottoman Algeria|Algeria]], and [[Ottoman Tunisia|Tunisia]]. Apart from spiritual exercises, the order also emphasised proper practice of [[Islam]], shunning ''[[taqlid]]'' and stressing adherence to foundational teachings. Under the tutelage of his uncle, ʿAbduh began to practice the litany of the ''Madaniyya''. Like many of his fellow students in Tanta, the experience would transform ʿAbduh towards Sufi asceticism with mystical orientations. Abduh would inherit many of his subsequent public views, such as firm opposition to ''taqlid'' from his Sufi uncle.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sedgwick|first=Mark|title=Makers of the Muslim World: Muhammad Abduh|publisher=One World Publications|year=2013|isbn=978-1851684328|pages=3–4, 13|chapter=Chapter 1: The Student}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hourani|first=Albert|url=https://archive.org/details/arabicthoughtinl0000hour|title=Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1962|location=Great Britain|url-access=registration}}</ref>

[[File:Muhammad Abduh.jpg|thumb|right|An early photo of Muḥammad ʿAbduh]]
ʿAbduh suffered from acute spiritual crises in his youth, similar to those experienced by the medieval [[Ulama|Muslim scholar]] and Sufi mystic [[al-Ghazali]]. He was heavily dissatisfied with the traditional education and representatives of mainstream ''ulama'' of his time. Under the influence of Shaykh Dārwīsh al-Khadīr, ''[[Sufism|Tasawwuf]]'' provided an alternative form of religiosity which would profoundly shape ʿAbduh's spiritual and intellectual formation. As ʿAbduh would subsequently emerge as a towering scholarly intellectual in Egypt, he concurrently assumed his role as a traditional Sufi Muslim. ''Tasawwuf'' as taught to ʿAbduh by Shaykh Dārwīsh transcended the perceived limitations and superficialities of traditional Islamic learning, and was based on an Islamic religiosity led by an intellectual, charismatic authority. For ʿAbduh, Shaykh Dārwīsh and his teachings represented orthodox Sufism, which was different from the Sufi folklore and the charlatans prevalent in rural Egypt during the [[Early modern period|early modern era]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Scharbrodt|first=Oliver|date=2007|title=The Salafiyya and Sufism: Muhammad 'Abduh and his Risalat al-Waridat (Treatise on Mystical Inspirations)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40378895|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=70|issue=1|page=92|doi=10.1017/S0041977X07000031|jstor=40378895|s2cid=170641656}}</ref> Explaining his conversion to Sufism under the training of Shaykh Dārwīsh, 'Abduh wrote: <blockquote>"On the seventh day, I asked the shaykh: ''What is your ''[[Tariqa|tarîqâh]]''?'' He replied: ''Islam is my ''tarıqa''.'' I asked: ''But are not all these people Muslims?'' He said: ''If they were Muslims, you would not see them contending over trivial matters and would not hear them swearing by God while they are lying with or without a reason.'' These words were like fire which burned away all that I held dear of the baggage from the past."<ref name="Scharbrodt 2007 89–115">{{Cite journal|last=Scharbrodt|first=Oliver|date=2007|title=The Salafiyya and Sufism: Muhammad 'Abduh and his Risalat al-Waridat (Treatise on Mystical Inspirations)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40378895|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=70|issue=1|pages=89–115|doi=10.1017/S0041977X07000031|jstor=40378895|s2cid=170641656}}</ref></blockquote>

In 1866,<ref name="KG">Kügelgen, Anke von. "ʿAbduh, Muḥammad." Encyclopaedia of Islam, v.3. Edited by: Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas and Everett Rowson. Brill, 2009. Syracuse University. 23 April 2009.</ref> ʿAbduh enrolled at [[al-Azhar University]] in [[Cairo]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Hourani|first=Albert|title=Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age|url=https://archive.org/details/arabicthoughtinl0000hour|url-access=registration|year=1962|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Great Britain}}</ref> where he studied [[logic]], [[Islamic philosophy]], [[Islamic theology|theology]], and Sufism.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hG2IswEACAAJ&q=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%81+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%82+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B6%D8%A9 |title=التصوف في سياق النهضة: من محمد عبده الى سعيد النورسي|last=حلمي،|first=عبد الوهاب، محمد|date=2018|publisher=Markaz Dirāsāt al-Waḥdah al-ʻArabīyah|isbn=978-9953-82-815-2|language=ar}}</ref> He was a student of [[Jamal al-Din al-Afghani|Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī]],<ref>Kedourie, E. (1997). ''Afghani and 'Abduh: An Essay on Religious Unbelief and Political Activism in Modern Islam'', London: Frank Cass. {{ISBN|0-7146-4355-6}}.</ref> a Muslim philosopher and religious reformer who advocated [[Pan-Islamism]] to resist [[European colonialism]]. During his studies in al-Azhar, ʿAbduh had continued to express his critiques of the traditional curricuulum and traditional modes of repetition. For him, al-Afghānī combined personal charisma with a fresh intellectual approach which the ''ulama'' of al-Azhar couldn't provide. As a young 22 year-old Sufi mystic seeking a charismatic guide and alternative modes of learning and religiosity, ʿAbduh chose al-Afghānī as his ''[[murshid]]''. Their ''[[murid]]''–''murshid'' relationship would last for eight years and al-Afghānī was able to meet the expectations of his young disciple. Under al-Afghani's influence, ʿAbduh combined journalism, politics, and his own fascination with Islamic mystical spirituality. Al-Afghānī enriched ʿAbduh's mysticism with a philosophical underpinning and thereby drew him to a rationalist interpretations of Islam. Al-Afghānī's lessons merged his Sufi mysticism with the esoteric and theosophic tradition of [[Qajar Persia|Persian]] [[Shia Islam|Shīʿīsm]]. He also taught ʿAbduh about the problems of Egypt and the [[Islamic world]], and about the technological achievements of the [[Western world|Western civilization]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Scharbrodt|first=Oliver|date=2007|title=The Salafiyya and Sufsm: Muhammad 'Abduh and his Risalat al-Waridat (Treatise on Mystical Inspirations)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40378895|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=70|issue=1|pages=93–94|doi=10.1017/S0041977X07000031|jstor=40378895|s2cid=170641656}}</ref>

In 1877, ʿAbduh was granted the degree of ''[[Ulama|ʿālim]]'' ("teacher") and he started to teach logic, Islamic theology, and [[Islamic ethics|ethics]] at al-Azhar University. In 1878, he was appointed [[professor]] of [[history]] at Cairo's teachers' training college ''[[Dar al-Ulum|Dar al-ʿUlūm]]'', later incorporated into [[Cairo University]]. He was also appointed to teach [[Arabic]] at the Khedivial School of Languages.<ref name=KG/> He is regarded as one of the key founding figures of [[Islamic Modernism]], sometimes called "Neo-[[Muʿtazila|Muʿtazilism]]" after the homonymous [[Schools of Islamic theology|medieval school of Islamic theology]] based on [[rationalism]].<ref>Ahmed H. Al-Rahim (January 2006). "Islam and Liberty", ''Journal of Democracy'' 17 (1), pp. 166-169.</ref> ʿAbduh was also appointed editor-in-chief of ''[[Al-Waqa'i' al-Misriyya|al-Waqāʾiʿ al-Miṣriyya]]'', the [[official newspaper]] of Egypt. He was dedicated to reforming all aspects of Egyptian society and believed that education was the best way to achieve this goal. He was in favor of a good religious education, which would strengthen a child's morals, and a scientific education, which would nurture a child's ability to reason. In his articles he criticized corruption, superstition, and the luxurious lives of the rich.<ref name=KG/>

In 1879, due to his [[political activism]], al-Afghānī was exiled and ʿAbduh was exiled to his home village. The following year he was granted control of the national gazette and used this as a means to spread his [[Anti-imperialism|anti-colonial ideas]], and the need for social and religious reforms.<ref name=EB/> He was exiled from Egypt by the [[British Empire|British forces]] in 1882 for six years, for supporting the Egyptian nationalist [[ʻUrabi revolt]] led by [[Ahmed ʻUrabi]] in 1879. He had stated that every society should be allowed to choose a suitable form of government based on its history and its present circumstances.<ref name=KG/> ʿAbduh spent several years in [[Ottoman Lebanon]], where he helped establish an Islamic educational system. In 1884 he moved to [[Paris]] in [[France]], where he joined al-Afghānī in publishing ''[[Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa|al-ʿUrwa al-Wuthqā]]'', an Islamic revolutionary journal that promoted [[Anti-British sentiment|anti-British views]]. ʿAbduh also visited Britain and discussed the state of Egypt and [[Ottoman Sudan|Sudan]] with high-ranking officials. In 1885, after brief stays in [[England]] and Tunisia, he returned to [[Beirut]] as a teacher,<ref name=EB/> and was surrounded by scholars from different religious backgrounds. During his stay, he dedicated his efforts toward furthering respect and friendship between [[Islam]], [[Christianity]], and [[Judaism]].<ref name=KG/>

[[File:Comite khaldounia.jpg|thumb|right|265px|Muḥammad ʿAbduh's meeting with members of the executive committee of [[Tunisia]]n educational institute [[Khaldounia]] in 1903]]
When he returned to Egypt in 1888, ʿAbduh began his legal career. He was appointed [[Qadi|judge]] (''qāḍī'') in the Courts of First Instance of the Native Tribunals and in 1891, he became a consultative member of the Court of Appeal.<ref name=EB/> In 1899, he was appointed [[Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah|Grand Mufti of Egypt]], the highest Islamic title, and he held this position until he died. As a ''qāḍī'', he was involved in many decisions, some of which were considered liberal, such as the ability to utilize meat butchered by [[Kafir|Non-Muslims]] and the acceptance of loan interest. His liberal views endeared him to the British, in particular [[Evelyn Baring, 1st Earl of Cromer|Lord Cromer]]; however they also caused a rift between him and the khedive [[Abbas II of Egypt|Abbas Hilmi]] and the nationalist leader [[Mustafa Kamil Pasha]].<ref name=EB/> While he was in Egypt, ʿAbduh founded a religious society, became president of a society for the revival of Arab sciences, and worked towards reforming the educational system of al-Azhar University by putting forth proposals to improve examinations, the curriculum, and the working conditions for both professors and students.<ref name=KG/> In 1900, he founded The Society for the Revival of Arabic Literature.<ref name=Brockett>Brockett, Adrian Alan, ''[https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/handle/10023/2770 Studies in two transmissions of the Qur'an]'', p. 11.</ref>

He travelled a great deal and met with European scholars in [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] and [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He studied the [[Napoleonic law|French law]] and read many great European and Arabic literary works in the libraries of [[Vienna]] and [[Berlin]]. The conclusions he drew from his travels were that [[Muslims]] suffer from ignorance about their own religion and the despotism of unjust rulers.<ref name="KG" /> ʿAbduh died due to [[renal cell carcinoma]] in [[Alexandria]] on 11 July 1905.