Editing NeXT (section)

==History==

===Background===
In 1985, Apple co-founder and CEO [[Steve Jobs]] led a division campaign called SuperMicro, which was responsible for developing the [[Macintosh 128K|Macintosh]] and [[Apple Lisa|Lisa]] computers. They were commercial successes on university campuses because Jobs had personally visited a few notable universities to promote his products, and because of [[Apple University Consortium]], a discounted academic marketing program.<ref name="The NeXT Big Thing" />{{rp|56,67,72}} The Consortium had earned over $50 million on computer sales by February 1984.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Morrison|first=Ann|date=February 20, 1984|title=Apple Bites Back|work=Fortune|url=http://fortune.com/1984/02/20/apple-bites-back-fortune-1984/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609050506/http://fortune.com/1984/02/20/apple-bites-back-fortune-1984/|archive-date=June 9, 2019}}</ref>

Jobs met [[Paul Berg]], a Nobel Laureate in chemistry, at a luncheon in [[Silicon Valley]] held to honor President of France [[François Mitterrand]].<ref name="The NeXT Big Thing">{{Cite book|last=Stross|first=Randall|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780689121357|title=Steve Jobs and the NeXT Big Thing|publisher=Athenium|year=1993|isbn=0-689-12135-0|page=|access-date=August 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628074925/https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780689121357|archive-date=June 28, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|72}}<ref>{{Cite news|last=Shannon|first=Victoria|title=Apple losing its polish in France| work=[[International New York Times|International Herald Tribune]]|page=11|date=May 22, 2006|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/05/21/business/lobbyside.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060602104905/http://iht.com/articles/2006/05/21/business/lobbyside.php|archive-date=June 2, 2006}}</ref> Berg was frustrated by the time and expense of researching [[recombinant DNA]] via [[wet laboratory|wet laboratories]], and suggested that Jobs should use his influence to create a "[[3M computer]]" that is designed for higher education.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Patton|first1=Phil|date=August 6, 1989|title=Steve Jobs: Out For Revenge|work=[[The New York Times Magazine]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/06/magazine/steve-jobs-out-for-revenge.html|url-status=live|access-date=July 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214133646/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/06/magazine/steve-jobs-out-for-revenge.html|archive-date=December 14, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Lubenow|first1=Gerald C.|date=September 29, 1985|title=Jobs Talks About His Rise and Fall|work=[[Newsweek]]|url=https://www.newsweek.com/jobs-talks-about-his-rise-and-fall-207016|url-status=live|access-date=July 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728070045/https://www.newsweek.com/jobs-talks-about-his-rise-and-fall-207016|archive-date=July 28, 2021}}</ref>

Jobs was intrigued by Berg's concept of a workstation and contemplated starting a higher-education computer company in late 1985, amid increasing turmoil at Apple. Jobs's division did not release the upgraded versions of the Macintosh computer and much of the [[Macintosh Office]] software.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Apple's new Mac push; can Apple Computer succeed in wooing big companies with its Macintosh Office?|last=Fuerst|first=Irene|date=March 15, 1985|work=Datamation|page=42}}</ref> As a result, its sales plummeted,<ref name="West of Eden">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/westofedenendofi00rose_0/page/193|title=West of Eden|last=Rose|first=Frank|publisher=Viking|year=1990|isbn=0-670-81278-1|access-date=August 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103205807/https://archive.org/details/westofedenendofi00rose_0/page/193|archive-date=January 3, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|193}} and Apple was forced to write off millions of dollars in unsold inventory.<ref name="West of Eden"/>{{rp|227}} In 1985, [[John Sculley]] ousted Jobs from his executive role at Apple and replaced him with [[Jean-Louis Gassée]].<ref name="West of Eden"/>{{rp|291}} Later that year, Jobs began a power struggle to regain control over his company. The [[board of directors]] sided with Sculley, and Jobs took a business trip to Western Europe and the Soviet Union on behalf of Apple.{{sfn|Young|Simon|2005|p=118}}

===Original NeXT team===
[[File:Steve Jobs and Macintosh computer, January 1984, by Bernard Gotfryd -cropped.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Steve Jobs smiles in a black suit.|[[Steve Jobs]], here pictured in 1984, founded NeXT in 1985.]]
In September 1985, after several months of being sidelined, Jobs resigned from Apple.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Kahney|first=Leander|date=September 15, 2008|title=Sept. 16, 1985: Jobs Quits AppleSept. 16, 1997: Jobs Rejoins Apple|magazine=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/2008/09/sept-16-1985-jobs-quits-applesept-16-1997-jobs-rejoins-apple/|url-status=live|access-date=December 14, 2021|archive-date=October 11, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011161047/https://www.wired.com/2008/09/sept-16-1985-jobs-quits-applesept-16-1997-jobs-rejoins-apple/}}</ref> He told the board he was leaving to set up a new computer company, and that he would be taking several Apple employees from the SuperMicro division with him, but he also promised that his new company would not compete with Apple and might even consider licensing their designs to them under the Macintosh brand.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Apple's Jobs Starts New Firm, Targets Education Market|last=Spector|first=G|date=September 24, 1985|work=[[eWeek|PC Week]]|page=109}}</ref>

Several former Apple employees followed him to NeXT, including [[Joanna Hoffman]], [[Bud Tribble]], [[George Crow]], [[Rich Page]], [[Susan Barnes (computing)|Susan Barnes]], [[Susan Kare]], and Dan'l Lewin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Gallagher |first=William |date=September 12, 2019 |title=Looking back at Steve Jobs's NeXT, Inc — the most successful failure ever |url=https://appleinsider.com/articles/18/09/12/looking-back-at-steve-jobss-next-inc----the-most-successful-failure-ever |access-date=July 12, 2022 |website=AppleInsider |language=en}}</ref> After consulting with major educational buyers from around the country, including a follow-up meeting with Paul Berg, a tentative specification for the workstation was drawn up. It was designed to be powerful enough to run wet lab simulations and affordable enough for dormitory rooms.<ref name="secondcoming">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/secondcomingofst00deut|url-access=registration|title=Second Coming of Steve Jobs|last=Deutschman|first=Alan|publisher=Broadway Books|year=2000|isbn=0-7679-0432-X|pages=[https://archive.org/details/secondcomingofst00deut/page/64 64]|access-date=August 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103205848/https://archive.org/details/secondcomingofst00deut|archive-date=January 3, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Before the specifications were finished, however, Apple sued NeXT on September 23, 1985, for "nefarious schemes" to take advantage of the cofounders' [[insider information]].<ref name="The NeXT Big Thing"/>{{rp|75}}<ref name="secondcoming"/>{{rp|44}}<ref name=":0" /> Jobs argued, "It is hard to think that a $2 billion company with 4,300-plus people couldn't compete with six people in blue jeans."{{sfn|Linzmayer|2004|p=207}}{{rp|207}} The suit was eventually dismissed before trial.<ref name="The NeXT Big Thing"/>{{rp|75}}

In 1986, Jobs recruited graphic designer [[Paul Rand]] to create a brand identity for {{US$|100000|1986|long=no|round=-3}}.<ref name="rand"/> Jobs recalled, "I asked him if he would come up with a few options, and he said, 'No, I will solve your problem for you and you will pay me. You don't have to use the solution. If you want options go talk to other people.{{'"}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Beahm|first=George W.|url=https://archive.org/details/stevejobslifebyd0000unse|title=Steve Jobs' life by design : lessons to be learned from his last lecture, the most popular graduation address in history|date=2014|isbn=978-1-137-27983-5|location=New York, NY|oclc=880884772|page=190|publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]]|author-link=George Beahm|access-date=February 22, 2022|url-access=registration}}</ref> Rand created a 20-page brochure detailing the brand, including the precise angle used for the logo (28°) and a new company name spelling, NeXT.<ref name="rand">{{Cite book|title=Paul Rand|last1=Heller|first1=Steven|last2=Helfand|first2=Jessica|last3=Lois|first3=George|publisher=Phaidon Press|year=2000|isbn=0-7148-3994-9|pages=256|url=https://archive.org/details/paulrand0000hell_c0d6/ |url-access=registration}}</ref>

===1987–1993: NeXT Computer===
====First generation====
[[File:First Web Server.jpg|thumb|This NeXT Computer was used by computer scientist [[Tim Berners-Lee|Sir Tim Berners-Lee]] at the European Organization for Nuclear Research ([[CERN]]) to create the world's first [[web server]] and [[web browser]]/[[web editor|editor]]. |alt=A NeXT Computer workstation has a black monitor, system box, keyboard, and mouse.]]
{{quote box | width=25% | align=right | text=I want some kid at Stanford to be able to cure cancer in his dorm room. | author=Steve Jobs, on the purpose of the NeXT Computer<ref name="Fearless Genius">{{Cite book |last=Menuez |first=Doug |date=June 3, 2014 |title=Fearless Genius: The Digital Revolution in Silicon Valley 1985-2000 |isbn=978-1476752693 |publisher=Atria Books |page=4 |oclc=852226582 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lat8AQAAQBAJ&q=cure+cancer&pg=PR20 |access-date=February 10, 2019 |url-status=live |archive-date=November 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124043946/https://books.google.com/books?id=Lat8AQAAQBAJ&q=cure+cancer&pg=PR20}}</ref>
}}

In mid-1986, NeXT changed its business plan to develop both hardware and software, rather than just workstations. [[Rich Page]], a NeXT cofounder who formerly directed Apple's Lisa team, led a team to develop the hardware, while [[Mach (kernel)|Mach kernel]] engineer [[Avie Tevanian]] led the development of NeXT's operating system, [[NeXTSTEP]]. NeXT's first factory was established in [[Fremont, California]] in 1987, capable of manufacturing about 150,000 machines per year.<ref name="The NeXT Big Thing"/>{{rp|72}} NeXT's first workstation is the [[NeXT Computer]], nicknamed "the cube"<ref name="byte"/> due to its distinctive magnesium {{convert|1|ft|cm|adj=on|spell=in}} cubic case. The case was designed by [[Hartmut Esslinger]] and his team at [[Frog Design]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Brownlee|first=John|date=February 16, 2016|title=Remembering The Design Legacy Of Steve Jobs's Other Great Computer Company|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/3056684/remembering-the-design-legacy-of-steve-jobss-other-great-computer-company|access-date=February 24, 2022|website=[[Fast Company]]|language=en-US|archive-date=January 13, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113001026/https://www.fastcompany.com/3056684/remembering-the-design-legacy-of-steve-jobss-other-great-computer-company|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news
| last = Bonnera
| first = Paul
| title = The heart of a new machine (frogdesign for NeXT computer)
| work = PC/Computing Magazine
| page = 144
| date = February 1989}}</ref>

In 1987, [[Ross Perot]] became NeXT's first major outside investor. He invested $20 million for 16% of NeXT's stock after seeing a segment about NeXT on the 1986 [[PBS]] documentary ''Entrepreneurs''.<ref name=":0" /> In 1988, he joined the company's board of directors.<ref name="RP iPhone">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Harry|date=July 9, 2019|title=How Ross Perot befriended Steve Jobs and helped bring us the iPhone|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/90374043/how-ross-perot-helped-bring-us-the-iphone|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201175217/https://www.fastcompany.com/90374043/how-ross-perot-helped-bring-us-the-iphone|archive-date=December 1, 2019|access-date=March 30, 2020|website=Fast Company|language=en-US}}</ref>{{sfn|Young|Simon|2005|p=134}}

NeXT and [[Adobe Inc.|Adobe]] collaborated on [[Display PostScript]] (DPS), a [[2D computer graphics|2D graphics]] engine that was released in 1987. NeXT engineers wrote an alternative [[Windowing system|windowing]] engine edition to take full advantage of NeXTSTEP. NeXT engineers used DPS for on-screen graphics such as title bar and scroller for the [[User space|user-space]] windowing [[Library (computing)|library]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/40543937|title=PostScript language reference|publisher=[[Addison-Wesley]]|others=[[Adobe Systems]]|year=1999|isbn=0-201-37922-8|edition=3rd|location=Reading, Mass.|oclc=40543937|access-date=January 4, 2022|archive-date=February 24, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224014050/https://www.worldcat.org/title/postscript-language-reference/oclc/40543937|url-status=live}}</ref>

The original design team anticipated completing the computer in early 1987 and launching it for {{US$|3000|1987|long=no|round=-2}} by mid-year.<ref>{{YouTube|title=Steve Jobs building NeXT|id=WHsHKzYOV2E}}</ref> On October 12, 1988, the NeXT Computer received standing ovations when it was revealed at a private gala event, "[[NeXT Introduction]]" in [[San Francisco]], California. The following day, selected educators and software engineers were invited to attend the first public technical overview of the NeXT computer at the event "The NeXT Day" held at the San Francisco Hilton. The event gave developers interested in NeXT software an insight into their [[Software architecture|architecture]], [[object-oriented programming]], and the NeXT Computer. The luncheon speaker was Steve Jobs.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Schlender|first=Brenton R|date=October 13, 1988|title=Next Project: Apple Era Behind Him, Steve Jobs Tries Again, Using a New System|url=https://www.tech-insider.org/unix/research/1988/1013.html|url-status=live|access-date=December 23, 2021|website=|publisher=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|archive-date=February 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228131557/http://tech-insider.org/unix/research/1988/1013.html}}</ref>

The first NeXT Computers were test launched in 1989, and then NeXT sold a limited number to universities with NeXTSTEP 0.9 [[Software testing#Beta testing|beta]] pre-installed.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.kevra.org/TheBestOfNext/Timeline/TImeline.html | title=NeXT Timeline }}</ref> Initially, this targeted the United States [[higher-education]] institutions only, with a base price of {{US$|6500|1989|long=no|round=-3}}.<ref name="byte">{{Cite magazine|last1=Thompson|first1=Tom|last2=Baran|first2=Nick|date=November 1988|title=The NeXT Computer|url=http://www.simson.net/ref/NeXT/byte_article.htm|magazine=[[Byte (magazine)|Byte]]|volume=13|issue=12|pages=158–175|access-date=May 14, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080405161616/http://www.simson.net/ref/NeXT/byte_article.htm|archive-date=April 5, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> The computer was widely reviewed in magazines, primarily the hardware portion. When asked if he was upset that the computer's debut was delayed by several months, Jobs responded, "Late? This computer is five years ahead of its time!"<ref>{{Cite book|title=Macintosh Switcher's Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/macintoshswitche00stan|url-access=limited|last=Standefer|first=Robert|publisher=Wordware Publishing|year=2004|isbn=1-55622-045-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/macintoshswitche00stan/page/n49 33]|chapter=Evolution of Mac OS X}}</ref>

The NeXT Computer has the 25&nbsp;MHz [[Motorola 68030]] [[central processing unit]] (CPU). The [[Motorola 88000]] [[Reduced instruction set computer|RISC]] chip was originally considered, but it was not available in sufficient quantities.<ref>{{Cite news | last = Takahashi |first = Ken | title = Motorola making chips in Japan | work = Newsbytes | date = August 29, 1989}}</ref> The computer has between 8 and 64 [[Megabyte|MB]] of [[random-access memory]] (RAM), a 256&nbsp;MB [[magneto-optical drive|magneto-optical]] (MO) drive, a 40&nbsp;MB ([[Paging|swap]]-only), 330&nbsp;MB, or 660&nbsp;MB [[hard disk drive]], [[10BASE2]] [[Ethernet]], [[NuBus]], and a 17-inch [[NeXT MegaPixel Display|MegaPixel]] grayscale display with 1120×832 [[pixel]]s. In 1989, a typical new PC, [[Macintosh]], or [[Amiga]] computer included a few megabytes of RAM, a 640×480 16-color or 320x240 4,096-color display, a 10- to 20-megabyte hard drive, and few [[Computer network|networking]] capabilities.<ref>{{Cite news
| last = White
| first = David W.
| title = Dell System 325 (Hardware Review)
| work = The Local Area Network Magazine
| page = 132
| date = December 1989}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Buyer's guide: benchmarks|last=Krasnoff|first=Barbara|date=December 1989|work=Personal Computing|page=170}}</ref> It is the first computer to ship with a general-purpose DSP chip (Motorola 56001) on the motherboard. This supports sophisticated music and sound processing, including the [[Music Kit]] software.<ref>{{Cite book|author=NeXT Computer, Inc.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irZQAAAAMAAJ|title=Sound, Music, and Signal Processing on a NeXT Computer: Concepts|date=1991|publisher=Addison-Wesley Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-201-58137-9|language=en|access-date=December 23, 2021|archive-date=December 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211223213114/https://books.google.com/books?id=irZQAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|url-status=live}}</ref>

The magneto-optical (MO) drive manufactured by [[Canon Inc.]] is the primary [[mass storage]] device. This drive technology was relatively new to the market, and the NeXT is the first computer to use it.<ref name="magneto-optical">{{Cite news|title=Developers split over optical drive (NeXT Inc's 256Mbyte erasable magneto-optical drive)|last=Rawles|first=Richard|date=September 19, 1989|work=[[MacWEEK]]|page=3.n33}}</ref> MO drives were cheaper but much slower than hard drives, with an average [[Hard disk drive performance characteristics#SEEKTIME|seek time]] of 96 ms; Jobs negotiated Canon's initial price of $150 per blank MO disk so that they could sell at retail for only $50. The drive's design made it impossible to move files between computers without a network, because each NeXT Computer has only one MO drive and the disk can not be removed without shutting down the system.<ref name="magneto-optical" /> The drive's limited speed and capacity makes it insufficient as NeXTSTEP's primary medium.<ref name="magneto-optical" />

In 1989, NeXT started a deal for former [[Compaq]] reseller Businessland to sell the NeXT Computer in international markets. Selling through a retailer was a major change from NeXT's original business model of only selling directly to students and educational institutions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/25/business/company-news-businessland-deal-seen-for-next-inc.html|title=COMPANY NEWS; Businessland Deal Seen for Next Inc.|date=March 25, 1989|work=The New York Times|access-date=January 20, 2020|url-status=live|agency=Reuters|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701024345/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/25/business/company-news-businessland-deal-seen-for-next-inc.html|archive-date=July 1, 2017}}</ref> Businessland founder David Norman predicted that sales of the NeXT Computer would surpass sales of Compaq computers after 12 months.<ref>{{Cite news | author=Shaffer, Richard | title=NeXT means business now. | work=Personal Computing | date=July 1989 | publisher=[[InfoTrac|General Reference Center Gold]]}}</ref>

That year, Canon invested {{US$|100 million|long=no}} in NeXT, for a 16.67% stake,<ref name="canon">{{Cite news | last=McCarthy | first=Vance | title=Steve Jobs just says no. | work=Fortune | date=July 17, 1993 | publisher=[[InfoTrac|General Reference Center Gold]]}}</ref> making NeXT worth almost $600 million. This had the condition of installing NeXTSTEP on its own workstations, greatly expanding NeXTSTEP's market. After NeXT exited the hardware business, Canon produced a PC line called ''object.station''—including models 31, 41, 50, and 52—specifically designed to run NeXTSTEP on Intel.<ref name="object">{{Cite web|url=http://www.kevra.org/TheBestOfNext/ThirdPartyProducts/ThirdPartyHardware/NeXTSTEPonNonNeXTComputers/IntelHardwareForNeXTStep/Canon-object-station41/Canon-object-station41/Canon-object-station41.html|title=Canon object.station 41|last=Ford|first=Kevin|website=The Best of NeXT Computers|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114182612/http://www.kevra.org/TheBestOfNext/ThirdPartyProducts/ThirdPartyHardware/NeXTSTEPonNonNeXTComputers/IntelHardwareForNeXTStep/Canon-object-station41/Canon-object-station41/Canon-object-station41.html|archive-date=January 14, 2012|access-date=September 18, 2011}}</ref> Canon was NeXT's distributor in Japan.<ref>{{Cite news | last =Garfinkel | first =Simon L | title =Open Door Policy | publisher =NeXTWORLD | date =April 1994 | url =http://www.simson.net/ref/NeXT/nextworld/94.4/94.4.Apr.Japan1.html | access-date =May 11, 2008 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20090208170326/http://www.simson.net/ref/NeXT/nextworld/94.4/94.4.Apr.Japan1.html | archive-date =February 8, 2009 | url-status =live }}</ref>

The NeXT Computer was released in 1990 for {{US$|9999|1990|long=no|round=-3}}. In June 1991, Perot resigned from the board of directors to concentrate on his company, [[Perot Systems]], a [[Plano, Texas]]–based software system integrator.<ref>{{Cite news | title = NeXT may expand two-man board | work = PC Week | page = 125 | date = December 9, 1991}}</ref>

====Second generation====
[[File:NEXT Cube-IMG 7151.jpg|thumb|alt=A black NeXTstation computer and a black NeXTcube workstation; the latter is housed in a cube-shaped magnesium enclosure|A NeXTcube has a NeXT monitor.]]
[[File:NeXTcube motherboard.jpg|thumb|The [[mainboard]] of the NeXTcube (1990) has a Motorola 68040 at the lower edge. To the right are the interfaces, to the left the [[system bus]]. The enlarged view of the image has annotations for most of the components.|alt=The mainboard of the NeXTcube (1990) has the Motorola 68040 and other computer components.]]
In 1990, NeXT released a second generation of workstations, a revised NeXT Computer called [[NeXTcube]] and the [[NeXTstation]]. The NeXTstation's nickname is "the slab" for its low-rise box form-factor. Jobs ensured that NeXT staffers did not nickname the NeXTstation "[[Pizza-box form factor|pizza box]]" to avoid inadvertent comparison with competitor Sun workstations, which already had that nickname.

The machines were initially planned to use the 2.88&nbsp;MB floppy drive, but its floppy disks were expensive and had failed to supplant the 1.44&nbsp;MB floppy. NeXT used the [[CD-ROM]] drive instead, which eventually became the industry standard for [[Computer data storage|storage]]. Color graphics were available on the NeXTstation Color and [[NeXTdimension]] [[Video card|graphics processor]] hardware for the NeXTcube. The new computers, with the new [[Motorola 68040]] processor, were cheaper and faster than their predecessors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pyro 50 Mhz Accelerator Board |url=http://www.nextcomputers.org/NeXTfiles/Docs/Rare_NeXT_Hardware/pyro_installation.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=December 23, 2021 |website=NeXT |archive-date=March 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329064138/http://www.nextcomputers.org/NeXTfiles/Docs/Rare_NeXT_Hardware/pyro_installation.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16A_AQAAIAAJ|title=Byte|date=1993|publisher=[[McGraw Hill Education|McGraw-Hill]]|language=en|page=35-36}}</ref>

In 1992, NeXT launched "Turbo" variants of the NeXTcube and NeXTstation, with a 33&nbsp;MHz 68040 processor and the maximum RAM capacity increased to 128&nbsp;MB. In 1992, NeXT sold 20,000 computers, counting upgraded motherboards on back order as system sales. This was a small number compared with competitors, but the company reported sales of $140 million for the year, which encouraged Canon to invest a further $30 million to keep the company afloat.{{sfn|Young|Simon|2005|p=200}}

{{quote box | width=25% | align=right | text=In its existence, Next has sold a total of 50,000 copies of Nextstep, says Jobs. It's not much of an installed base, so he predicts the company will ship 50,000 Nextstep packages in 1993. But Next needs to increase its volume three-fold in order to build enough momentum to forestall Microsoft and Taligent in the object-oriented software business. | source=''UnixWorld'', April 1993<ref name="Unixworld April 1993"/>}}

In total, 50,000 NeXT machines were sold,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wired.com/2005/12/next-fans-give-up-the-ghost/|title=NeXT Fans Give Up the Ghost|last=Mortensen|first=Pete|date=December 21, 2005|work=[[Wired (website)|Wired]]|access-date=March 3, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629034820/http://www.wired.com/gadgets/mac/commentary/cultofmac/2005/12/69888?currentPage=1|archive-date=June 29, 2011|issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref name="Unixworld April 1993">{{Cite magazine | magazine=UnixWorld | publisher=McGraw-Hill | date=April 1993 | page=44 | title=Steve's Gone Soft }}</ref> including thousands to the then super-secret [[National Reconnaissance Office]] located in Chantilly, Virginia. NeXT's long-term plan was to migrate to one of the emerging high-performance [[Reduced instruction set computer|Reduced Instruction Set Computing]] (RISC) architectures, with the NeXT RISC Workstation (NRW). Initially, the NRW was to be based on the [[Motorola 88110]] processor, but it was later redesigned around dual PowerPC 601s, due to a lack of confidence in Motorola's commitment to the 88000-series architecture in the time leading up to the [[AIM alliance]]'s transition to [[PowerPC]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.simson.net/ref/NeXT/nextworld/NextWorld_Extra/93.03.Mar.NWE/93.03.Mar.NWExtra21.html|title=Hardware was great while it lasted|last=Garfinkel|first=Simson L.|date=March 1993|website=NeXTWORLD|access-date=June 13, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080614201019/http://www.simson.net/ref/NeXT/nextworld/NextWorld_Extra/93.03.Mar.NWE/93.03.Mar.NWExtra21.html|archive-date=June 14, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.simson.net/ref/NeXT/nextworld/NextWorld_Extra/93.03.Mar.NWE/93.03.Mar.NWExtra07.html|title=Canon to buy NeXT factory, design center|last=Lavin|first=Dan|date=March 1993|website=NeXTWORLD|url-status=live|access-date=June 13, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080614200658/http://www.simson.net/ref/NeXT/nextworld/NextWorld_Extra/93.03.Mar.NWE/93.03.Mar.NWExtra07.html|archive-date=June 14, 2008}}</ref>

===1993–1996: NeXT Software, Inc.===
[[File:NeXTSTEP desktop.png|thumb|The [[NeXTSTEP]] [[operating system]] interface|alt=The NeXTSTEP operating system interface, running a series of commands]]
In late 1991, in preparation for NeXT's future withdrawal from the hardware industry, the company started [[porting]] the NeXTSTEP operating system to [[Intel 80486]]-based [[IBM PC compatible]] computers. In January 1992, it was demonstrated at NeXTWorld Expo. By mid-1993, the process was completed, and version 3.1 (NeXTSTEP 486) was released.<ref>{{Cite news | title=Next Computer Close To a Deal With Chrysler | date=September 8, 1992 | work=San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref>

NeXTSTEP 3.x was later ported to [[PA-RISC]]-<ref name="RISC">{{Cite news | last =Sherman | first =Lee | title =First NeXT RISC Workstation | work =NeXTWORLD | year =2004 | url =http://www.simson.net/ref/NeXT/nextworld/94.4/94.4.Apr.PA-RISC1.html | access-date =April 14, 2008 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20080613180500/http://www.simson.net/ref/NeXT/nextworld/94.4/94.4.Apr.PA-RISC1.html | archive-date =June 13, 2008 | url-status =live }}</ref><ref name="nextworld199404_risc">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/NeXTWORLDVol.4No.4April1994/page/n19/mode/2up | title=First NeXT RISC Workstation | magazine=NeXTWORLD | last1=Sherman | first1=Lee | date=April 1994 | access-date=May 12, 2024 | pages=16–18 }}</ref> and [[SPARC]]-based platforms, for a total of four versions: NeXTSTEP/NeXT (for NeXT's own hardware), NeXTSTEP/Intel, NeXTSTEP/PA-RISC, and NeXTSTEP/SPARC. Although the latter three ports were not widely used, NeXTSTEP gained popularity at institutions such as [[Bank One Corporation|First Chicago NBD]], [[Swiss Bank Corporation]], O'Connor and Company, due to its sophisticated 
programming model.<ref>{{Cite news|title=NeXTSTEP: NeXT announces new release of NeXTSTEP & NeXTSTEP Developer. (NeXTSTEP 3.2 and NeXTSTEP Developer 3.2)|date=October 25, 1993|work=EDGE: Work-Group Computing Report|page=40}}</ref> The software was used by many U.S. government agencies, including the [[United States Naval Research Laboratory]], the [[National Security Agency]], the [[DARPA|Advanced Research Projects Agency]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], and the [[National Reconnaissance Office]].<ref>{{Cite news
| last = McCarthy
| first =Shawn P.
| title = Next's OS finally is maturing. (NextStep Unix operating system)
| work = Government Computer News
| page = 46
| date = March 6, 1995}}</ref> Some IBM PC clone vendors offered somewhat customized hardware solutions that were delivered running NeXTSTEP on Intel, such as the Elonex NextStation<ref name="Elonex PCW">{{Cite news|title=Elonex NextStation|last=Beard|first=Mat|date=June 1994|work=Personal Computer World}}</ref> and the Canon object.station 41.<ref name="Canon object.station PCW">{{Cite magazine | last=Bidmead | first=Chris | title=NeXT, please | magazine=Personal Computer World |date=February 1995 }}</ref>

In 1993, NeXT withdrew from the [[Orphaned technology|hardware]] industry, and the company was renamed to NeXT Software, Inc. Consequently, 230 of the 530 staff employees were laid off.<ref name="TE">{{Cite news|last=Fisher|first=Lawrence M|date=February 10, 1993|title=Next to Sell Hardware Side And Focus on Its Software|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/10/business/next-to-sell-hardware-side-and-focus-on-its-software.html|url-status=live|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=December 14, 2021|archive-date=December 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214041700/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/10/business/next-to-sell-hardware-side-and-focus-on-its-software.html}}</ref> NeXT negotiated to sell its hardware business, including the Fremont factory, to Canon, which later canceled the deal. Work on the PowerPC machines was stopped, along with all hardware production. Sun CEO [[Scott McNealy]] announced plans to invest $10 million in 1993 and use NeXT software in future Sun systems.<ref>{{Cite news | title=Sun invests in Next, which will license NextStep OS for Sparc. | work=InfoWorld | date=November 29, 1993 | publisher=[[InfoTrac|General Reference Center Gold]]}}</ref> NeXT partnered with Sun to create a [[API|programming environment]] called OpenStep, which is NeXTSTEP's application layer decoupled for third party operating systems.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/nextworld-1994|title=NeXTWORLD 1994|date=1994}}</ref> In 1994, Microsoft and NeXT collaborated on a port of OpenStep to Windows NT, which was never released.<ref name="PM" />

In January 1994, a developers' conference was held in Washington, D.C. Attendees of the 1994 NeXT East Coast Developer Conference had the opportunity to purchase a software bundle including NEXTSTEP 3.2.<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/nextworld-1994 | magazine=NeXTWORLD | page=20 | title=NeXTWORLD 1994 | year=1994 }}</ref>

Stepstone, originally named Productivity Products International (PPI), was a software company founded in 1983 by [[Brad Cox]] and Tom Love, best known for releasing the original version of the [[Objective-C]] programming language. In April 1995, NeXT acquired the Objective-C trademark and rights from Stepstone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cox |first1=Brad J. |last2=Naroff |first2=Steve |last3=Hsu |first3=Hansen |date=June 12, 2020 |title=The origins of Objective-C at PPI/Stepstone and its evolution at NeXT |journal=Proceedings of the ACM on Programming Languages |volume=4 |issue=HOPL |pages=82:1–82:74 |doi=10.1145/3386332|s2cid=218518131 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Stepstone concurrently licensed back from NeXT the right to continue selling its Objective-C based products. [[Apple Computer]] later acquired the rights to Objective-C along with NeXT. 

After exiting the hardware business, NeXT focused on other operating systems. New OpenStep products were released, including OpenStep Enterprise for [[Windows NT]]. NeXT launched [[WebObjects]], a platform for building large-scale dynamic web applications. It did not achieve wide popularity, partly because of the initial high price of {{US$|50000|1995|round=-2|long=no}}, but it did generate profit for the company. WebObjects is the first and most prominent early example of a web application server that enabled dynamic page generation based on user interactions instead of static web content.<ref name=birthdaywo>{{Cite web |work=MacObserver |url=http://www.macobserver.com/article/2006/03/28.14.shtml |title=Happy Birthday: WebObjects at 10 |access-date=June 13, 2008 |last=Stewart |first=Graham |year=2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080620231311/http://www.macobserver.com/article/2006/03/28.14.shtml |archive-date=June 20, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> WebObjects was used by many large businesses including [[Dell]], [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]], [[Deutsche Bank]], the [[BBC]],<ref name="webobjects">{{Cite magazine | date=June 16, 2005 | first=Johnny | last=Evans | title=Apple releases WebObjects as a free application | magazine=Macworld | url=http://www.macworld.co.uk/news/index.cfm?NewsID=11860 | access-date=April 14, 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612210214/http://www.macworld.co.uk/news/index.cfm?NewsID=11860 | archive-date=June 12, 2008 | url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], [[Nissan]],<ref name=birthdaywo/> and later Apple for the [[iTunes Store]] and [[Apple Store#Online store|online Apple Store]].<ref>{{Cite web | date=June 2, 2003 | last=Dalrymple | first=Jim | title=Xserves power iTunes Music Store, 'America 24/7' | url=https://www.macworld.com/article/1024637/xserve.html | work=[[Macworld]] | access-date=October 18, 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019003410/https://www.macworld.com/article/1024637/xserve.html | archive-date=October 19, 2017 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Bazoge |first1=Mickaël |title=Cette fois, c'est officiel : Apple a bel et bien abandonné WebObjects |url=https://www.macg.co/logiciels/2016/05/cette-fois-cest-officiel-apple-bel-et-bien-abandonne-webobjects-94043 |website=MacGeneration |access-date=June 5, 2023 |language=fr |date=May 5, 2016}}</ref>

===1997–2006: Acquisition by Apple===
{{quote box | width=25% | align=right | text=We went for one of our, you know, signature Steve Jobs walks around Palo Alto, and ... we happened to see someone who was in that meeting from the [Apple] management team who said, 'You guys won easily, no problem. You have nothing to worry about.' | source=[[Avie Tevanian]], presenting NeXT versus Be to Apple<ref name="Oral History of Avadis Tevanian, part 2">{{Cite interview | title=Oral History of Avadis Tevanian, part 2 | publisher=Computer History Museum | interviewer=John Markoff | interviewer2=Hansen Hsu | interviewer3=David C. Brock | first=Avie | last=Tevanian | author-link=Avie Tevanian | date=April 17, 2017 | location=Mountain View, CA | url=https://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2017/07/102740143-05-01-acc.pdf | access-date=February 10, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212190536/https://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2017/07/102740143-05-01-acc.pdf | archive-date=February 12, 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref>
}}

On December 20, 1996, Apple Computer announced its intention to acquire NeXT.<ref name="apple-acquisition">{{Cite press release|title=Apple Computer, Inc. Agrees to Acquire NeXT Software Inc.|url=http://product.info.apple.com/pr/press.releases/1997/q1/961220.pr.rel.next.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020208190346/http://product.info.apple.com/pr/press.releases/1997/q1/961220.pr.rel.next.html|archive-date=February 8, 2002|publisher=Apple Computer|date=December 20, 1996|access-date=June 13, 2008}}</ref> Apple paid $427 million in cash, shares, stock options, and debt.<ref name="AppleConfidential" />{{Rp|page=277}}<ref>{{cite web |author1=Apple Inc. |title=Apple Inc. audited annual financial report, form 10-K405 |url=https://d1lge852tjjqow.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/19cdeb31-2f1d-4fcb-a4a5-cdef6954f12e.pdf |website=Apple |access-date=June 5, 2023 |page=49 |date=December 23, 1998}}</ref> Steve Jobs preferred to only receive cash, but [[Gil Amelio]] insisted he take 1.5 million Apple shares to give the deal credibility.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Amelio |first1=Gil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMQhwQEACAAJ |title=On the Firing Line: My 500 Days at Apple |last2=Simon |first2=William L. |date=1998 |publisher=Capstone |isbn=978-1-900961-98-1 |language=en}}</ref> The main purpose of the acquisition was to use NeXTSTEP as a foundation to replace the dated [[classic Mac OS]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Steve Jobs Sold NeXT to Apple 20 Years Ago|url=https://fortune.com/2016/12/20/apple-next-anniversary/|access-date=February 24, 2022|website=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]|language=en|last=Reisinger|first=Don|date=December 20, 2016|archive-date=January 23, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123174345/https://fortune.com/2016/12/20/apple-next-anniversary/|url-status=live}}</ref> Steve Jobs also returned to Apple as a consultant.<ref>{{Cite news
| title = Apple May Press Jobs To Be Or Not To Be CEO
| work = Newsbytes
| date = March 24, 1998}}</ref>

The deal was finalized on February 7, 1997.<ref name="archive">{{Cite web |url=http://product.info.apple.com/pr/press.releases/1997/q2/970207.pr.rel.next.html |title=Apple Computer, Inc. Finalizes Acquisition of NeXT Software Inc. |access-date=January 4, 2007 |archive-date=January 17, 1999 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990117075346/http://product.info.apple.com/pr/press.releases/1997/q2/970207.pr.rel.next.html |url-status=dead }}, ''Apple Inc.'', February 7, 1997. Retrieved June 25, 2006.</ref><ref name="Linzmayer1999">{{Cite book |last=Linzmayer |first=Owen W. |title=Apple Confidential |year=1999 |edition=1st |pages=230–231 |language=en}}</ref> In 2000, Jobs took the CEO position as a permanent assignment,<ref>{{Cite web | date=January 6, 2000 | title=Jobs becomes permanent Apple CEO | website=[[ZDNET]] |first=Lisa M. |last=Bowman | url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/jobs-becomes-permanent-apple-ceo/ | access-date=July 26, 2023}}</ref> holding the position until his resignation on August 24, 2011, shortly before his death on October 5, 2011.<ref name="Steve Jobs, Apple co-founder, dies at 56">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2011/oct/06/steve-jobs-apple-cofounder-dies |work=The Guardian |location=UK |title=Steve Jobs, Apple co-founder, dies at 56 |date=October 6, 2011 |first=Dominic |last=Rushe | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130619055912/http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2011/oct/06/steve-jobs-apple-cofounder-dies | archive-date = June 19, 2013| url-status=live}}</ref>

Several NeXT executives replaced their Apple counterparts when Jobs restructured the company's board of directors. Over the next five years the NeXTSTEP operating system was ported to the [[PowerPC]] architecture of [[Macintosh]]. At the same time, an Intel port and OpenStep Enterprise toolkit for Windows were produced. That operating system was [[codename]]d [[Rhapsody (operating system)|Rhapsody]],<ref>{{Cite web | date=August 6, 1997 | title=What's NeXT? | work=MacObserver | first=Arlen | last=Britton | url=http://www.macobserver.com/columns/whatsnext/articles/080697.shtml | access-date=June 13, 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527055757/http://www.macobserver.com/columns/whatsnext/articles/080697.shtml | archive-date=May 27, 2008 | url-status=live }}</ref> and the crossplatform toolkit is Yellow Box. For backward compatibility, Apple added the Blue Box to Rhapsody, running existing Mac applications in a self-contained cooperative multitasking environment.<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Thompson
| first = Tom
| title = Rhapsody with blue (Apple's next-generation operating system code-named Rhapsody)
| work = [[Byte (magazine)|Byte]]
| page = 26
| date = April 1997}}</ref>

A server version of Rhapsody was released as [[Mac OS X Server 1.0]] in 1999, and the first consumer version, [[Mac OS X 10.0]], in 2001. The OpenStep developer toolkit was renamed [[Cocoa (API)|Cocoa]]. Blue Box was renamed [[Classic Environment]] and changed to run applications full-screen without requiring a separate window. Apple included an updated version of the original Macintosh toolbox, called [[Carbon (API)|Carbon]], running existing Mac applications natively without the constraints of Blue Box.<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Sellers
| first = Dennis
| title = OS X III: finally, a first-class OS
| work = Computer User
| page = 66
| date = November 2000}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news
| title = Mac OS X Takes Macintosh to New Level
| work = [[eWeek]]
| date = July 15, 2002}}</ref> Some of NeXTSTEP's interface features are used in Mac OS X, including the [[Taskbar|Dock]], the [[Services menu]], the [[Finder (software)|Finder]]'s "[[Miller columns|Column]]" view, and the [[Cocoa text system]].

NeXTSTEP's processor-independent capabilities were retained in Mac OS X, leading to PowerPC, x86, and ARM versions. Only PowerPC versions were publicly available before 2006 and were discontinued by 2009, and ARM versions were not released until 2020. Apple transitioned its Mac computers to Intel processors by August 2006, and to ARM processors as of September 2022.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Apple to Use Intel Microprocessors Beginning in 2006 |url=https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2005/06/06Apple-to-Use-Intel-Microprocessors-Beginning-in-2006/ |access-date=2025-01-06 |website=Apple Newsroom |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Mac computers with Apple silicon | url=https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT211814 | publisher=Apple Inc. | date=July 25, 2022 | access-date=September 16, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220916160633/https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT211814 |archive-date=September 16, 2022 |url-status=live }}</ref>